School Specialty today announced the 2024 winners of its annual Crystal Apple Awards, which celebrate teachers who embody inspiration, leadership, and passion in teaching.
Each year, students, parents, administrators, fellow teachers, family, and friends nominate teachers who go above and beyond to touch the lives of students every day. School Specialty selects 10 finalists from the nominees, and three winners are then selected by public vote. School Specialty received a record 611 nominations this year, nearly doubling last year’s total. This year’s winners will each receive a personalized trophy and a $500 gift certificate from School Specialty for themselves, as well as a $250 School Specialty gift certificate for their school. They are:
Typhani Russo, from Commonwealth Charter Academy in Harrisburg, PA, is the founder of Bookworms Against Bullies, a nonprofit that inspires students with stories of overcoming bullying;
Mercedes Salas from Uvalde Elementary School in Uvalde, TX, whose constant love, kindness, and support has impacted so many students; and
Julie Pfeifer from Abraxas School of Ohio in Mansfield, OH, who has launched a book club, an auto body club, and a 3D printing club as she sought to engage students using their own interests, and written curricula for new courses, allowing students to earn certificates they can use after graduation.
“Having witnessed firsthand the immense efforts and lifelong impact educators have on students, I am profoundly honored to be part of the Crystal Apple Awards,” said Sue Ann Highland, PhD, the national education strategist at School Specialty. “Teachers serve as the cornerstone of our education system, wholeheartedly devoting themselves to crafting enriching experiences and safe havens for our students. Recognizing their dedication and exceptional contributions is extremely important, and one of the most rewarding aspects of my role at School Specialty.”
Finalists for the Crystal Apple Awards receive a $100 School Specialty merchandise certificate for themselves and an additional $100 certificate for their school. This year’s finalists are:
Lisa Longino from Mayfair Elementary in South Euclid, OH;
Claudette Henson from Creative Environment Day School in Fayetteville, NY;
Debra Cline from Manatee School For the Arts in Palmetto, FL;
Holli Herndon from Pleasant Grove Elementary in Inverness, FL;
Meghan Bodie from Edison Elementary School in Milan, OH;
Kaylie Morgan from Uwharrie Charter Academy in Star, NC; and
Michelle Morgan from Nichols Elementary in Huntington, WV.
To learn more about the Crystal Apple Awards, please visit SchoolSpecialty.com.
Spanish speakers in the US, among linguists and nonlinguists, have been denigrated for the way that they speak, says UC Berkeley sociolinguist Justin Davidson. It’s part of the country’s long history of scrutiny of nonmonolingual English speakers, he says, dating back to the early 20th century.
“It’s groups in power, it’s discourses and collective communities, that sort of socially determine what kinds of words and what kinds of language are acceptable and unacceptable,” says Davidson, an associate professor in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese.
But the US is a Spanish-speaking country, he says, and it’s time for us as a nation to embrace US Spanish as a legitimate language variety.
In collaboration with Hispanic linguists at UCLA and UC Santa Cruz, Davidson is working on a project called Multilingual Hispanic Speech in California, funded by a grant from the University of California Office of the President.
For the project, the linguists are conducting interviews with Spanish–English bilinguals across California—the state with the most Spanish speakers in the US. Each of the researchers will collect 200 interviews of people speaking at least 35 minutes of Spanish and 35 minutes of English.
In the next episode, they’ll discuss language bias—how we all have it, where it comes from, and the devastating consequences it can have.
As part of its goal to displace American influence, China is winning linguistic hearts in East Africa (a bloc of 300 million people), by publishing the Xi Jinping Thought propaganda book in the local Swahili language. Millions of Swahili speakers in East and Central Africa are sampling China’s ruler’s thoughts in their native language.
Xi’s Brain “We love it, picking Chairman Xi’s brain in the Swahili language,” said Suleimani Konjo, coordinator of the Chinese–Tanzania Friendship Forum, an informal lobby group in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, the region’s second-largest economy.
Swahili is a mass indigenous African dialect spoken by nearly 200 million people in the East African communities of countries that comprise Tanzania, Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, and Burundi. It is also the largest native language on the entire African continent. Colloquially called the Latin of Africa, Swahili mixes foreign Arabic words with African dialects. And China has set its sights on Swahili.
In mid-August, the Swahili-language version of The Governance of China was launched. This provides the reference basis for the propaganda book, the full title of which is Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.
“The publication of the book will help African readers understand the historical backgrounds and cultural roots of China’s path of development, the governing philosophy of the Communist Party of China, and the Chinese wisdom about building a better world,” explained a statement from the State Council Information Office, a ministry in the People’s Republic of China, in August.
Excitement Often called Xi Jinping Thought, the propaganda book is a mandatory read for China’s civil servants extolling the totalitarian system in China that Xi presides over. And it’s creeping into East Africa.
“We are excited that Chairman Xi’s thoughts will be distributed in the Swahili language here in Tanzania, and we will send the booklets to primary and secondary school children,” Benard Kamiru, an education secretary in Tanzania’s Ministry of Education, told Language Magazine.
Ahead of translation of Xi’s propaganda, the countries of Tanzania, Kenya, and Rwanda sent university language scholars to shadow the process in China so that any translation from Mandarin accurately matches the meaning in the African Swahili language, Kamiru says.
“Because of British, German, and French colonialism in East Africa, we were forced to read books by American and British presidents, authors, the Churchills, Roosevelts, Shakespeare—and they were never translated into Swahili language. We feel so honored and respected that a major power like the Chinese wants to put their president’s thoughts in our Swahili language,” said Dedan Winjoro, a diplomacy director in the Kenya Foreign Affairs ministry and a former diplomat of Kenya to China.
US–China Duel East Africa—the Swahili-speaking bloc—is a region where the US is trailing China in public appeal and financial deals, and cultural resistance to English is growing.
China is the major financial aid giver to East African countries, and the China Road and Bridge Corporation has built gigantic infrastructure projects like the $3.8 billion railway line in Kenya. In East Africa’s leading economies like Kenya, China owns 70% of the countries’ debt, thus underlining Beijing’s march on the region. Apart from being located at the mouths of globally vital seaways like the Red Sea, East Africa is also home to some of the world’s most precious cobalt, graphite, and lithium rare earth metals, thus cementing the region as a key strategic point for Washington and Beijing.
“China is super smart and calculative,” Yasin Kakande, East Africa expert and author of Why We Are Coming, told Language Magazine. “Pushing Chairman Xi’s propaganda book to school-age children in East Africa in the Swahili language shows Beijing is out to shape attitudes not only among bureaucrats but ordinary people walking the streets. It’s a linguistic coup Beijing is attempting.” Deogracias Kalima
Last month, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, in cooperation with the European Union and the Council of Europe, organized a round table event focusing on minority languages. The session, attended by over 130 representatives from schools, educational institutions, national minorities, and embassies, focused on presenting and discussing the “Road Map for Creating Conditions for Improving the Quality of Education in the State Language and Indigenous Peoples’ Languages in General Secondary Education Institutions of Ukraine for 2023–2027.”
The road map outlines measures to enhance language education for Indigenous peoples and national minorities in the school system. The deputy minister of education, Yevhen Kudryavets, emphasized the importance of equal access and quality education for all Ukrainian children, with a commitment to involving national minority representatives in consultations.
Erlend Falch, deputy head of the Council of Europe Office in Kyiv, highlighted the council’s ongoing commitment to minority protection, emphasizing human rights and cooperation. Discussions among teachers and minority representatives centered on the need for quality bilingual education, teacher training, and the creation of educational materials. Participants stressed involving civil society in legislative changes and monitoring implementation.
The Council of Europe reiterated its support for Ukraine’s efforts, pledging ongoing assistance and expertise and fostering dialogue among diverse sectors of society.
The event was supported by the joint European Union and Council of Europe project Supporting the Implementation of European Standards on Combating Discrimination and the Rights of National Minorities in Ukraine, in close partnership with the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine.
Ukraine joined the Council of Europe in 1995. The Council of Europe was founded in 1949 to promote human rights, democracy, and the rule of law on the continent. It has 46 member states (compared to the European Union’s 27) with a combined population of approximately 675 million.
The Council of Europe cannot make laws, but it does have the ability to push for the enforcement of select international agreements reached by member states on various topics. The best-known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which functions on the basis of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The Council of Europe played a pioneering role in the struggle for the abolition of the death penalty, which it regards as “having no place in democratic societies.” No executions have been carried out in any of the organization’s 46 member states since 1997.
Following the decision of the Committee of Ministers on March 16, 2022, the Russian Federation is no longer a member of the Council of Europe.
New evidence suggests that studying Chinese and learning to write Chinese characters may train a whole array of cognitive abilities not developed by learning other languages and writing systems.
A study conducted by researchers from the UK’s Wellcome Trust found that “people who speak Mandarin Chinese use both temporal lobes of their brain to understand the language.” This is very different from English-language speakers who use only the left temporal lobe. The difference is evident because speakers of Chinese “use intonation to distinguish between completely different meanings of particular words,” according to BBC News.
In addition to the unique tonal distinctions of Chinese, the practice of handwriting, especially of Chinese characters, will aid the development of motor skills, learning shapes and letters, the visual identification of graphics, and will keep the mind sharp. Through the use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, researchers found that neural activity in children who practiced printing by hand was more enhanced and “adult-like” than those who just looked at letters. Compared with English, which is mostly linear and written from left to right, Chinese characters are more complex in structure and writing involves strokes in all four directions: up, down, left, and right. The sequential movement of the fingers and hand to form a character activates neural activity in the working, thinking, and spatial memory of the brain of the learners.
Evidence also indicates that there is a correlation between the learning of Chinese and math skills. Researchers from New Zealand observed that “Asian children educated in their own languages appear to have gained a greater understanding of mathematical concepts than English speaking children,” and suggested that this is because during the natural acquisition process of Chinese, the student is learning and reinforcing basic mathematical concepts (White et al, 2001). Math skills are embedded in character writing because it involves skills such as counting, grouping, ordering, and identifying similarities and differences.
While the research on the relationship between the learning of Chinese and cognition is not yet conclusive or comprehensive, there is good evidence to suggest that learning Chinese tones and characters represents an added dimension to language learning.
The board of Silicon Valley’s Fremont Unified School District (FUSD) has voted to introduce Hindi as a world language into its curriculum, making it the first public school district in California to offer Hindi.
The FUSD School Board voted four to one to launch a pilot program that will see Hindi in the curriculum of Horner Middle School and Irvington High School for the 2024–2025 school year. The decision has been met with great enthusiasm and support from the Indian American community, which makes up nearly 65% of the student population in these two schools.
The battle to include Hindi in the FUSD curriculum started almost two decades ago, with the Indian American community advocating for cultural representation and a more inclusive education. Despite previous efforts, FUSD had adopted Mandarin in two schools and offered multiple other languages but had not considered Hindi until now.
During the meeting, FUSD board members Vivek Prasad, Sharon Coco and Larry Sweeney and president Yajing Zhang showed strong support for the proposal, citing the welfare of students as a major factor in their decision.
“I look at the demand, and I look at the value that this Hindi offering will produce for the community… for me it’s a no-brainer,” said trustee Vivek Prasad, endorsing the pilot.
“If this is successful and if other schools want to offer Hindi, they will be able to in the future… so at this moment in time I’m in favor,” was the response of trustee Sharon Coco, highlighting her commitment to the student community of FUSD.
“I’m positive that it [the pilot] will go to all high schools and all middle schools, and they will embrace it,” stated trustee Larry Sweeney in support of the proposal.
“Who do we serve?” asked board president Yajing Zhang. “Students! And so do we serve the students’ interest if there is a huge evident demand for this class?”
Hindi ranks as the third most spoken language in the world. It is predominantly spoken in India, where approximately 43.6% speak Hindi as a native language. India is an emerging economy categorized as one of the fastest-growing countries in the South Asian region. The report Global Economic Prospects, January 2024 by the World Bank anticipates the Indian economy to grow fastest among the world’s largest economies.
Parallel California Assembly (2226) and Senate (1056) Bills have been introduced that would require children to attend one year of kindergarten before enrolling in first grade, beginning with the 2026-2027 school year. An accompanying Assembly Bill (2268) would expressly state that the requirement for pupils in kindergarten to be assessed in English listening and speaking does not include pupils in transitional kindergarten.
Currently, kindergarten is not required for students in California, but it is considered a grade level, is factored in calculating average daily attendance (ADA), and is included in the academic content standards, curriculum frameworks, and instructional materials. However, attendance in kindergarten is not mandatory, and compulsory education laws begin at age six.
“We know the achievement gap is present before children attend first grade. California is making substantial investments in pre-kindergarten programs, including transitional kindergarten (TK) and the California State Preschool Program (CSPP), providing opportunities for children to have two years of high-quality early education before entering first grade. To fully realize this goal, we must ensure that all children attend kindergarten to build the foundational skills and knowledge necessary to support their ongoing academic and social-emotional success,” said Assemblymember Al Muratsuchi (D-Torrance), Chair of the Assembly Education Committee, who introduced the bill.
“As a public school teacher for over 17 years, I have witnessed firsthand the detrimental impact on young students who miss out on fundamental early education,” said Senator Susan Rubio. “The voluntary participation for kindergarten leaves students unprepared for the educational environment they will encounter in elementary school. Recent data from the California Research Bureau shows that the majority of students who are not enrolled in kindergarten are Latino, creating an equity issue throughout the state and worsening the already troubling achievement gap. We have a responsibility to uplift all children in our community and ensure all students reach their full potential. This will only happen if every child is enrolled in kindergarten.”
“Research shows that Kindergarten is an essential part of a young student’s development. This critical early instruction and socialization serves as an important tool in reducing chronic absenteeism and sets a strong foundation for every child, particularly our most disadvantaged students. This is the right investment for the State of California and the State cannot wait any longer to enact this law to support every child with the opportunity to enter first grade with the tools they need to succeed. Los Angeles Unified is proud to be a sponsor of this important bill. We look forward to continuing to partner with Senator Rubio, Assemblymember Muratsuchi and other state leaders to pursue policies in the best interest of children,” said Los Angeles Unified Superintendent Alberto M. Carvalho.
“Mandating students to attend kindergarten prior to entering the first grade will ensure all students receive high-quality academic, social, linguistic and developmentally-appropriate learning experiences,” explained Martha Hernández, executive director, Californians Together.
Eastern Tennessee State University Program title: MEd in Reading Format: Online Length: Four semesters Credit hours: 36 credit hours Specializations: English as a second language; special education interventionist www.etsu.edu/online/graduate-degrees/reading-education.php
University of Massachusetts Program title: MEd and EdS Reading and Language, licensure and nonlicensure options Format: Online Length: 18–24 months Credit hours: 30–33 UMass Lowell’s School of Education offers a master’s degree and an education specialist’s degree in reading and language that provides experienced teachers with opportunities to advance their knowledge and practice in literacy education. Licensure and nonlicensure options are available. The licensure option is approved by the Massachusetts Department of Education. https://www.uml.edu/education/advance-teacher/me-rl.aspx
Endicott College Program title: MS in Reading and Literacy Instruction Format: Online Length: Full time, three semesters; part-time options available Credit hours: 36 Thinking of advancing your career in education? Endicott College’s Reading and Literacy Program prepares students for a career in reading instruction. Endicott’s program is fully online, with flexible scheduling and affordable tuition. With multiple starts per year, it’s always a good time to enroll. Contact the Office of Graduate Admission for more information: [email protected]; 978-232-2199. www.endicott.edu/academics/schools/school-of-education/graduate-programs/masters-programs/educator-preparation-program/reading-and-literacy-instruction-program
Mount St. Joseph University Program title: Mount St. Joseph University Reading Science Program Format: Online Length: Master’s—two years Doctoral—three years Credit hours: Master’s—33 hours (six semesters) Doctoral—60 hours Mount St. Joseph University offers programs focused on the science of reading at both the graduate and doctoral levels. The programs are fully online and built for the full-time educators. The programs feature educators from across the nation. www.readingscience.org
University of Central Missouri Program title: MSE in Literacy Format: Online Length: Flexible, typically two years Credit hours: 33 Specializations: Identifying reading disabilities; designing curriculum to support students; culturally responsive pedagogy; foundation of literacy and language; formal and informal assessment; professional leadership; effective communication with learners, colleagues, administrators, parents, and community members; school-based applications of core content; program aligned with International Literacy Association Standards for Preparation of Literacy Professionals www.ucmo.edu/academics/programs/masters-degrees/coe/educational-foundations-and-literacy/literacy/literacy-education-mse/index.php
University of Texas at Rio Grande Valley Program title: MEd in Reading and Literacy Format: Online Length: Flexible Credit hours: 30 Specializations: Reading Specialist, Biliteracy, Digital Literacy and Adolescent Literacy. Focuses on: The ways that literacy is constructed socially, culturally, and ideologically in an increasingly globalized world; Language and literacy development across multiple linguistic and cultural contexts taught from an asset-based perspective; Instructional design, delivery, and assessment in literacy education for students capitalizing on culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds; Supports effective oral and written communication integrating theory with practice for scholarly and professional purposes www.utrgv.edu/bls/degrees-programs/graduate-programs/reading-and-literacy/index.htm
University of Nebraska Omaha Program title: Literacy Program Format: Fully online Length: Four semesters and above Credit hours: 36 credits for MS in literacy degree, 30 credits for K–12 reading endorsement The University of Nebraska Omaha’s literacy program offers a curriculum focused on developing critically engaged teachers who are prepared to support diverse learners in all aspects of literacy learning with evidence-based pedagogy. Candidates will engage in experiences to bridge theory to practice, while working toward professional goals as leaders in the field. Embedded in the program is the option to complete a 15-hour dyslexia specialist certificate, which provides advanced training in the science of reading and structured literacy instruction. Graduate literacy programs—the choice is yours—be exceptional! | Teacher education | University of Nebraska Omaha www.unomaha.edu
Providence College Program title: Master of Education in Literacy Format: Campus Length: 1.5 years *contingent upon schedule (can be completed in up to five years) Credit hours: 36 The Master of Education in Literacy from Providence College features built-in practical field experience in local schools as well as campus-based courses. Courses are taught by current educators in the field, and the program is aligned with the most recent International Literacy Association (ILA) Standards for Reading Professionals. Build your professional network and let Providence College help you support your students. https://education-social-work.providence.edu/graduate-degrees/master-education-literacy
This past fall, we were writing animal counting stories in my first-grade class. I had one of the best experiences as I was working with my students to develop the stories. The students were going to have a choice to write primarily in English or primarily in Iñupiaq. Since we were writing about animals, I was reviewing the animal names in English and Iñupiaq to create a word wall to support them in their writing. I would flash an animal and the students would shout, “Tuttu!” “Aarigaa,” I’d say, “What is it in English?” Silence. “Tuttu is caribou. Suna una?” I would say as I flashed the next animal. “Aiviq!” they would shout out. “Aarigaa. What is it in English?” Silence again. “Walrus.”
This went on for every animal I showed. Dog, bee, musk ox, bowhead whale. My students would say the animal names in Iñupiaq first, struggling to identify the English names. This is more significant than we might realize as outsiders looking in. My school district and the communities within it are currently undertaking a concentrated effort to revitalize the Iñupiaq language. In 1982, few or no children in Point Hope spoke the language. That is still true today. Yet moments like this with my students warm my heart. They might not be fluent, but they are making progress every day.
And I feel lucky to be a part of this effort. Ten years ago, when I first moved to Point Hope, I could not have done a lesson like this with my students. Even five years ago I might have still struggled. Today, I am a better partner in the language revitalization than I was back then. Even from my general education classroom, I find that there are things I can do to support their language learning in English and Iñupiaq. First, I made the decision early on in my teaching career to value bilingual education.
Oftentimes teachers see the acquisition of two languages as a barrier, when really it should be seen as a strength. I have a master’s degree in bilingual/ESL education. This program confirmed that research shows that children can be bilingual; they can learn two languages at the same time without proficiency in one taking away from proficiency in the other. It also provided me with some of the tools and skills I needed to create a classroom environment that is more inclusive of both languages in my classroom. Visually, it looks like vocabulary words and labels around my classroom. Imiq is above my drinking fountain, katchi is hanging on the wall, and upkuaq is on the door. I have the colors displayed in English and Iñupiaq. My calendar includes the Iñupiaq months and days of the week in the Tikiġaq dialect. My students are surrounded by the language in my classroom, even though I am not fluent in it. Auditorily, it means hearing the language in my classroom as often as possible for me, which brings me to another way I support this language and cultural integration.
Second, I have started learning the language myself. I use the VIVA program, a computer-based program that our students use as part of language instruction with our Iñupiaq language teacher. It is open for staff and students, so I started using it. I have also taken courses through Iḷisaġvik College, Alaska’s only Tribal college, located in Utqiaġvik. Through these courses, I have learned basic Iñupiaq vocabulary and grammar that I can use in my classroom and in different lessons. In the lesson above, I was able to use some of the animal names, numbers, and verbs to help my students write sentences about their animals in either English or Iñupiaq based on their preference. By being a language learner myself, I am demonstrating to my students that I think there is importance and value in their language and culture. This also allows me the opportunity to model what it means to be a learner for my students. In most of the academic content areas, I am the expert in the room. When it comes to the language and culture of my students, this is not the case. I have to humble myself in this area and recognize that there is much that my students can teach me. This often means my students correcting me on how to pronounce the words I try to say.
Third, I engage with the iḷisaurrit, the language teachers in my school. I am obviously not qualified to teach the language. I am not from the community and am far from fluent. It would not be appropriate for me to teach the language or culture, but I can make sure that it is integrated and that there is an authentic representation of concepts in my classroom. With the skills I do have, I can partner meaningfully with the teachers who are qualified in this area. When I am teaching units or lessons that are culturally integrated, I always collaborate with the educators around me who are more familiar with the cultural concepts in the lessons. I verify that the vocabulary I intend to use is double-checked by one of our iḷisaurrit to make sure that I have both the correct words and the correct spellings. I also check to make sure any cultural practices referenced align with local practices, as traditions can vary greatly even between the communities in our district. I am so thankful for the partnerships I have with the iḷisaurrit and that they are always willing to work collaboratively with me to educate our students.
I am incredibly thankful that I can teach in a time when cultural values and language are being embraced within the school system instead of being banned. It is an honor to be a partner in this revitalization effort in the ways that I, and other teachers from outside of the community, can be.
Harlee Harvey is an elementary educator in the village of Point Hope, Alaska. Her work with Alaska Native students has garnered national recognition from The NEA Foundation, a national nonprofit organization in Washington, DC promoting the best in public education.
Nationally, there is a higher demand for biliteracy. High-quality biliteracy can be developed in a variety of contexts when curriculum, instruction and professional learning are carefully crafted and implemented school wide. To expedite bilingual biliteracy programs, more vocabulary, discourse, reading, and writing is taught across all subjects in both languages. To advance academic success for multilingual learners and all striving readers, the whole school participates in evidence-based learning on how to integrate language and literacy into all core content areas.
High-quality biliteracy means:
There is a balance of time devoted to two languages.
Academic language, foundational reading, reading comprehension, and writing skills are taught in both languages.
Cross-disciplinary instruction (math, science, social studies, and language arts) is in both languages.
Speakers dominant in one language are given timely opportunities to become dominant in two languages.
There is an understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity and equitable instruction.
School leaders value and understand immigrant students, use data to measure progress, and engage families.
All ESL/ELD, special education, core content teachers, coaches, counselors, equity directors, and administrators participate in comprehensive year-long professional development and school-site collaborative learning.
While this article advocates for dual language programming, it is worth noting that in monolingual settings many of the evidence-based features are the same. Both bilingual and monolingual teachers can foster the multilingual learners (MLLs) bilingual/biliteracy development and make visible the value of the home language and culture. With teachers as facilitators, multilingual learners of the same partner language can readily interact, exchange different perspectives, brainstorm ideas, or offer feedback while working on projects.The use of the students’ home language in such structures will enhance opportunities for graduation and a Seal of Biliteracy.
Imagine this school!
The whole faculty, leadership, instructional coaches, and counselors attend the same professional development series of workshops at the school. Each workshop is delivered in English and Spanish. Teachers get to choose in which language to engage. After each workshop, the on-site coaches and principals shadow the expert coaches as they observe, give feedback, and plan next steps with the teachers—because they themselves are shifting coaching and evaluation practices to fit the new instructional approaches. A monthly session on assessment helps everyone gauge students’ progress. In Teacher Learning Communities, teachers study student performance data and their own coaching summaries. Co-teachers work together on the next steps. Coaches return to coach the co-teachers.
The Research Base on Multilingual Learners’ Success
Empirical studies and reviews/synthesis of the literature have served to develop guidelines for program implementation and instructional practices on literacy or biliteracy in dual language and monolingual classrooms. This article focuses on READING and highlights some examples for vocabulary, discourse, and reading comprehension. Writing and other components are found in Chapter 3 of Breaking Down the Monolingual Wall (Soto et.al, 2023).
Synthesis of research from the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (August & Shanahan (Eds)., 2006).
Lessons from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (August & Shanahan, 2008).
Synthesis of research compendium on teaching vocabulary: Research and Development on Vocabulary (Hiebert & Kamil, (Eds.) 2005).
Reviews conducted under the auspices of educational centers or universities (Cheung & Slavin, 2012; Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2006; Lindholm-Leary & Genesee, 2010).
The Center for Applied Linguistics review panel on Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education for effective program design and evaluation (Howard, E. et al., 2018 third edition).
Longitudinal studies on reading for MLL at Johns Hopkins University (Slavin & Calderón, 2001; August, Carlo, Calderón, 2001; Slavin et al., 2011; Calderón 2007; Calderón, Tartaglia & Montenegro 2023).
The Urgency for Change
Regardless of the program and language(s) of instruction, MLLs need reading instruction in all core content areas (math, science, social studies, language arts) in elementary schools. In secondary schools, all core content teachers who have or will have multilingual students must be prepared to integrate academic language, reading comprehension, and writing skills into their math, science, social studies, language arts, advanced placement, and STEM classes.
The Vocabulary and Discourse Connection with Reading
Reading comprehension is anchored with key vocabulary from any text that students are about to read. This is what we know from empirical research:
Vocabulary is a precursor into reading. Words selected to preteach before students read come from books at grade level—basal readers, science and social studies texts, and math problems. STEM projects are ideal because MLLs are pretaught words to read, they use these words repeatedly throughout the lesson. In STEM inquiry, MLLs can use the language of their choice and to facilitate discussions, clarify concepts, and anchor concepts. This is followed by attempts to stretch their self-confidence and use those new concepts in English.
Discourse anchors language, literacy, and content. The proverbial ‘MLLs need to talk more’ is often heard but rarely enacted throughout a lesson. Teachers can provide opportunities for partner and team practice of discourse skills during reading and writing. Techniques that enhance reading comprehension and discourse development include verbal summarization after reading each paragraph, formulating questions with peers about the text, discussing characteristics/text structure and written summaries, and verbal retelling or enacting (August & Calderón 2008; Calderón, 2007).
Reading expedites word knowledge and discourse in any language. Most textbooks and basal readers select core content words and define them in the glossary. Even so, teachers know that there are more important words to select. Textbooks mostly select what are called “Tier 3 words “–content-specific words, whereas the words that affect comprehension for MLLs are those that nest content-specific words. These are the words in long sentences, typically called “Tier 2 words,” and consist of information processing words, polysemous words, transition words, cognates, false cognates, idioms, and words for specificity. “Tier 1 words” are those simple easy everyday words that most, but not all, non-MLLs know by second grade.
From Vocabulary to Verbal Discourse
Discourse is spoken or written communication; a formal discussion of a topic in speech or writing; a conversation, debate, or presentation around a text students read.
Integrating Discourse into Every Lesson, Home Language, and Translanguaging
Reduce teacher presentation to no more than five minutes and stop to ask students to “Teach Your buddy what I just said and use my words.”
after writing part of a math equation on the board, stop and let them teach each other,
during the inquiry part of science, let students discuss at every step,
after relating a historical event or a social studies issue, chunk the content and ask students to summarize what happened so far or share ideas.
Build content ideas by explicitly saying
this is the concept,
these are some facts,
these are some claims,
let’s explore…
Working in teams of four with a mix of English-speaking students and multilingual learners, ask students to talk about
different types of graphic organizers for scientific concepts,
key information from each paragraph,
new ways of solving the math problem,
team presentations to the class.
Have students use their own background knowledge, culture, personal history, and home language to
design a path for the character who must solve a dilemma,
set a goal,
come up with a different ending of a story,
build a better community.
Bring closure to the learning during each class period by
debriefing with open-ended questions,
having partners summarize for each other what they learned in both languages.
What does it look like in my classroom, school, and district?
Take a look at these features with your colleagues to gauge the status of your implementation.
Implementation Features
My class
All other classrooms
Some classrooms
Language and literacy are integrated into all core content instruction
Academic language/vocabulary and discourse strategies in both languages are used in every class to build reading comprehension and content learning.
Reading foundational skills are taught in both languages (phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension).
Reading comprehension skills in both languages are taught, highlighting background knowledge and using close reading with peers
Structured cooperative learning after peer reading is designed to actuate ample verbal discourse.
Writing in two languages across the subject areas is part of subject-specific lessons.
Cross-linguistic transfer and translanguaging during discourse, reading and writing is used effectively.
Early screening and assessments are used to gauge learning progress for each student.
Whole-school comprehensive professional development and effective coaching focus on evidence-based instructional strategies.
Points to Consider for Developing Literacy or Biliteracy
Literacy for Second-Language Learners. Literacy for MLLs is a comprehensive, multidimensional approach that integrates the speaking, listening, reading, and writing domains. Language and literacy are the link with academic content learning in one or more languages.
The Science of Reading. Since school districts are moving toward the ‘Science of Reading,’ the Reading League and the National Committee for Effective Literacy’s joint statement (2023) emphasizes that both literacy development and language development must be attended to for students to comprehend texts. Language and literacy development for MLLs enacts more than the “Big 5” components:phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and reading comprehension. These five must be addressed differently for MLL by integrating a 6th which is word knowledge, discourse/interaction, and a 7th that is cultural, social-emotional, and linguistic instructional practices (August et al., 2008).
The Science of Reading in Two Languages. For second language learners, lessons are amplified to include word meaning for all words being introduced, followed by ample oral practice with new words. While the phonemes and the letter-sound correspondences are different between English and Spanish, the process or strategies for decoding are basically the same (e.g., letter recognition, letter-sound correlation, blending in English/syllable recognition in Spanish, word recognition, spelling, word application in own discourse). Knowing where MLLs fall within the dual language foundational reading subcomponents provides insights into reading difficulties or strengths in either language, and where to focus instruction or extra assistance.
The Skills for Reading Comprehension. Reading comprehension is based on knowing how to decode but it has its own list of components (e.g., text features, text structures, comprehension strategy, metacognition, executive function). Partner Reading with Summarization has been shown to be the most effective reading approach for integrating all foundational skills along with speaking, listening, and depth of comprehension. When students read aloud in pairs alternating sentences, they anchor decoding, develop prosody, understand sentence structure, and punctuation. When MLLs stop after each paragraph and summarize verbally with a peer, they practice the new vocabulary, discourse protocols, comprehend at a deeper level, clarify their thinking, and learn the content.
Foundations of Reading for Older Newcomers and Long-Term ELs. We must acknowledge in grades 4th to 12th that newcomers and even other more advanced MLLs still need foundational skills. Long-Term ELs might have missed quality basic reading instruction. Newcomers might have never developed reading skills in their native language. Without decoding skills, there can be no fluency and much less comprehension as they struggle through large dense pieces of texts in middle and high school. Notwithstanding, the instructional approach to foundational skills (phonics) must be compatible with their age, educational background, and type of need (e.g., decoding, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension strategies).
Interrelationship of both languages occurs when the reading subcomponents are taught, compared, and contrasted in both languages. Even the smallest units of reading such as /p/ in English and in Spanish can be practiced when contrasting the phonemes in words such as ‘paper’ and ‘papel’ by holding a piece of paper up to their mouth and watching which word the paper moves. Besides linguistic features such as affixes, cognates, text features and structures, critical thinking (generating and testing ideas), author’s craft, writing, editing, revising, and social norms for interacting with others also transfers.
Collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. Multilingual learners enjoy listening to themselves and others read for pronunciation and fluency because reading with a buddy makes it a safe environment to take risks. They learn to delve deeper into their own thinking and comprehension by verbally summarizing what they read while getting help from a peer. Working with same-language peers becomes an opportunity for translanguaging as they put together strings of discourse to build comprehension. Equally valuable, heterogeneous grouping is effective when the native Spanish speakers help the native English speakers during reading in Spanish, and the tables turn when it is time to read in English. Collaborating on summaries also gives second language learners opportunities to practice their new discourse skills and social emotional competencies or collaborative skills. Whole class interaction such as debriefing after reading a section provides additional opportunities to anchor both languages and prepare for elaborate writing.
Equity. Equity, in this context, involves giving all students access to excellent teaching and rigorous, rich, relevant learning opportunities in two languages. It means helping students learn as much as possible, building on their strengths, developing their talents and interests, as we meet and anticipate their needs along the way. It means helping them develop stronger relationships with their multicultural peers.
The Intersection of Academic Language and Reading Comprehension in Both Languages
The integration of language and literacy continuously adds depth to word knowledge, grammar, comprehension and the “soft skills” that help students build confidence, appreciate their own talents and culture, and collaborate and communicate with peers. The figure below displays some of the subcomponents of literacy and biliteracy and how social and self-awareness skills and competencies can be developed. They are not in sequential order.
Put a check mark on the subcomponents of reading you address in both languages:
WORD KNOWLEDGE
GRAMMAR
READING COMPREHENSION
UNDERGIRDING SEL SKILLS FOR READING
Phonemic awareness
Parts of speech
Text elements and socio-cultural conventions
Self-awareness (e.g., mindset for reading, doing away with past bad experiences with reading)
Transfer of reading skills to other subject areas and life (e.g., ask questions, explore different perspectives)
Word meaning (Tiers 1, 2, 3)
Text features (e.g., indentation, title, bullets, bold letters, charts, graphs, maps)
Higher order thinking/metacognitive strategies and cross-language connections
Transfer of reading skills and routines between languages
Word Fluency
Cross-language awareness (affixes, cognates)
Discourse – verbal and written
Transfer of language and content to academic writing
Verbal discourse and fluency using those words
Written discourse using words from reading and explicit preteaching
Text structure (e.g., expository text, fictional biography, argumentative)
Bilingual, bicultural, and biliteracy awareness and goals
Continued word study
Complex text analysis
Close reading strategies
Well-being, self-care
Adapted from Calderón, Tartaglia & Montenegro (2023)
Dual language schools want quality implementation. A dual language-centered professional development design will provide learning opportunities to expand educator expertise in evidence-based learning for MLLs. Educators have effective coaches and scheduled opportunities to learn from colleagues, share successes, and repair common problems of implementation. Teachers are given time and space where they test and refine their practice and reflect with others. The time afforded to revise lessons to integrate new practices is not a luxury but a prerequisite to successful delivery. Leadership plays a major role in providing these collaborative structures and solicits feedback from teachers on how to improve their learning spaces. Continuous focused authentic praise and encouragement is routine for dual language teachers and dual language students.
REFERENCES
D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.) (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers.
August, D., Beck, I. L., Calderón, M., Francis, D.J., Lesaux, N. K., & Shanahan, T. (2008). Instruction and professional development. In August, D. & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing reading and writing in second language learners. Lessons from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers.
August, D., Calderón, M. & M. Carlo. (2001). Transfer of Reading Skills from Spanish to English: A Longitudinal Study of Young Learners. Report ED-98-CO-0071 to the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, U. S. Department of Education.
Berman, Minicucci, McLaughlin, Nelson & Woodworth, (1995). Effective leadership. In Review of research and best practices on effective features of dual language education programs (29-32).
Calderón, M. E. (2007). Teaching reading to English language learners, Grades 6-12: A framework for improving achievement in the content areas. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Calderón, M. E., Tartaglia, L. M. with H. Montenegro. (2023). Cultivating competence in English learners: Integrating social-emotional learning with language and literacy. Bloomington,IN: Solution Tree.
Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2012). Effective reading programs for Spanish-dominant English language learners (ELLs) in the elementary grades: A synthesis of research. Review of Educational Research, 82(4), 351–395. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654312465472
Hiebert, A & M. Kamil (eds.) (2005) Research and development on vocabulary. Nahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Howard, E. R., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., Rogers, D., Olague, N., Medina, J., Kennedy, B., Sugarman, J., & Christian, D. (2018). Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Slavin, R.E. & M. Calderón. (Eds.) (2001). Effective programs for Latino students. Nahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Calderon, M. E., Chamberlain, A., & Hennessy, M. (2011). Reading and language outcomes of a five-year randomized evaluation of transitional bilingual education. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33 (1), 47-58.
Margarita Espino Calderón ([email protected]) is a professor emerita at Johns Hopkins University. Her research centers on evidence-based learning for MLLs and their teachers. She is an international speaker, has over 100 publications, and works with hundreds of awesome teachers and administrators.
Premise:
Nationally, there is a high demand for biliteracy. High-quality biliteracy can be developed in a variety of contexts when curriculum, instruction, and professional learning are carefully crafted and implemented school wide.
To expedite bilingual biliteracy programs, more vocabulary, discourse, reading, and writing are taught across all subjects in both languages. To advance academic success for multilingual learners and all striving readers, the whole school participates in evidence-based learning on how to integrate language and literacy into all core content areas.
High-quality biliteracy means:
There is a balance of time devoted to two languages.
Academic language, foundational reading, reading comprehension, and writing skills are taught in both languages.
Cross-disciplinary instruction (math, science, social studies, and language arts) is in both languages.
Speakers dominant in one language are given timely opportunities to become dominant in two languages.
There is an understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity and equitable instruction.
School leaders value and understand immigrant students, use data to measure progress, and engage families.
All ESL/ELD, special education and core content teachers, coaches, counselors, equity directors, and administrators participate in comprehensive year-long professional development and school-site collaborative learning.
While this article advocates for dual language programming, it is worth noting that in monolingual settings many of the evidence-based features are the same. Both bilingual and monolingual teachers can foster the multilingual learners’ (MLLs’) bilingual/biliteracy development and make visible the value of the home language and culture. With teachers as facilitators, multilingual learners of the same partner language can readily interact, exchange different perspectives, brainstorm ideas, or offer feedback while working on projects. The use of the students’ home language in such structures will enhance opportunities for graduation and a Seal of Biliteracy.
Imagine This School!
The whole faculty, leadership, instructional coaches, and counselors attend the same professional development series of workshops at the school. Each workshop is delivered in English and Spanish. Teachers get to choose in which language to engage.
After each workshop, the on-site coaches and principals shadow the expert coaches as they observe, give feedback, and plan next steps with the teachers—because they themselves are shifting coaching and evaluation practices to fit the new instructional approaches. A monthly session on assessment helps everyone gauge students’ progress. In teacher learning communities, teachers study student performance data and their own coaching summaries. Co-teachers work together on the next steps. Coaches return to coach the co-teachers.
The Research Base on Multilingual Learners’ Success
Empirical studies and reviews/syntheses of the literature have served to develop guidelines for program implementation and instructional practices on literacy or biliteracy in dual language and monolingual classrooms. This article focuses on reading and highlights some examples for vocabulary, discourse, and reading comprehension. Writing and other components are found in Chapter 3 of Breaking Down the Monolingual Wall (Soto et al., 2023).
The Urgency for Change
Regardless of the program and language(s) of instruction, MLLs need reading instruction in all core content areas (math, science, social studies, language arts) in elementary schools. In secondary schools, all core content teachers who have or will have multilingual students must be prepared to integrate academic language, reading comprehension, and writing skills into their math, science, social studies, language arts, Advanced Placement, and STEM classes.
The Vocabulary and Discourse Connection with Reading
Reading comprehension is anchored with key vocabulary from any text that students are about to read. This is what we know from empirical research:
Vocabulary is a precursor to reading. Words selected to preteach before students read come from books at grade level—basal readers, science and social studies texts, and math problems. STEM projects are ideal because MLLs are pretaught words to read and they use these words repeatedly throughout the lesson. In STEM inquiry, MLLs can use the language of their choice to facilitate discussions, clarify concepts, and anchor concepts. This is followed by attempts to stretch their self-confidence and use those new concepts in English.
Discourse anchors language, literacy, and content. The proverbial “MLLs need to talk more” is often heard but rarely enacted throughout a lesson. Teachers can provide opportunities for partner and team practice of discourse skills during reading and writing. Techniques that enhance reading comprehension and discourse development include verbal summarization after reading each paragraph, formulating questions with peers about the text, discussing characteristics/text structure and written summaries, and verbal retelling or enacting (August and Calderón, 2008; Calderón, 2007).
Reading expedites word knowledge and discourse in any language. Most textbooks and basal readers select core content words and define them in the glossary. Even so, teachers know that there are more important words to select. Textbooks mostly select what are called Tier 3 words—content-specific words—whereas the words that affect comprehension for MLLs are those that nest content-specific words. These are the words in long sentences, typically called Tier 2 words, and they consist of information-processing words, polysemous words, transition words, cognates, false cognates, idioms, and words for specificity. Tier 1 words are those simple, easy, everyday words that most, but not all, non-MLLs know by second grade.
From Vocabulary to Verbal Discourse
Discourse is spoken or written communication; a formal discussion of a topic in speech or writing; or a conversation, debate, or presentation around a text students read.
Integrating Discourse into Every Lesson, Home Language, and Translanguaging
Reduce teacher presentation to no more than five minutes and stop to ask students to “Teach your buddy what I just said and use my words.”
After writing part of a math equation on the board, stop and let them teach each other.
During the inquiry part of science, let students discuss at every step.
After relating a historical event or a social studies issue, chunk the content and ask students to summarize what has happened so far or share ideas.
Build content ideas by explicitly saying,
This is the concept;
These are some facts;
These are some claims;
Let’s explore…
Working in teams of four with a mix of English-speaking students and multilingual learners, ask students to talk about:
Different types of graphic organizers for scientific concepts;
Key information from each paragraph;
New ways of solving the math problem;
Team presentations to the class.
Have students use their own background knowledge, culture, personal history, and home languages to:
Design a path for the character who must solve a dilemma;
Set a goal;
Come up with a different ending of a story;
Build a better community.
Bring closure to the learning during each class period by:
Debriefing with open-ended questions;
Having partners summarize for each other what they learned in both languages.
Points to Consider for Developing Literacy or Biliteracy
Literacy for second-language learners. Literacy for MLLs is a comprehensive, multidimensional approach that integrates the speaking, listening, reading, and writing domains. Language and literacy are the link with academic content learning in one or more languages.
The science of reading. Since school districts are moving toward the “science of reading,” the Reading League and the National Committee for Effective Literacy’s joint statement (2023) emphasizes that both literacy development and language development must be attended to for students to comprehend texts. Language and literacy development for MLLs requires more than the “big five” components:phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and reading comprehension. These five must be addressed differently for MLLs by integrating a sixth, which is word knowledge and discourse/interaction, and a seventh, which is cultural, social–emotional, and linguistic instructional practices(August et al., 2008).
The science of reading in two languages. For second-language learners, lessons are amplified to include word meaning for all words being introduced, followed by ample oral practice with new words. While the phonemes and the letter–sound correspondences are different between English and Spanish, the process or strategies for decoding are basically the same (e.g., letter recognition, letter–sound correlation, blending in English/syllable recognition in Spanish, word recognition, spelling, word application in own discourse). Knowing where MLLs fall within the dual language foundational reading subcomponents provides insights into reading difficulties or strengths in either language, and into where to focus instruction or extra assistance.
The skills for reading comprehension. Reading comprehension is based on knowing how to decode, but it has its own list of components (e.g., text features, text structures, comprehension strategy, metacognition, executive function). Partner reading with summarization has been shown to be the most effective reading approach for integrating all foundational skills along with speaking, listening, and depth of comprehension. When students read aloud in pairs, alternating sentences, they anchor decoding, develop prosody, and understand sentence structure and punctuation. When MLLs stop after each paragraph and summarize verbally with a peer, they practice the new vocabulary and discourse protocols, comprehend at a deeper level, clarify their thinking, and learn the content.
Foundations of reading for older newcomers and long-term ELs. We must acknowledge in grades 4–12 that newcomers and even other, more advanced MLLs still need foundational skills. Long-term ELs might have missed quality basic reading instruction. Newcomers might never have developed reading skills in their native languages. Without decoding skills, there can be no fluency and much less comprehension as they struggle through large, dense pieces of text in middle and high school. Notwithstanding, the instructional approach to foundational skills (phonics) must be compatible with their ages, educational backgrounds, and types of need (e.g., decoding, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension strategies).
Interrelationship of both languages occurs when the reading subcomponents are taught, compared, and contrasted in both languages. Even the smallest units of reading such as /p/ in English and in Spanish can be practiced when contrasting the phonemes in words such as paper and papel by holding a piece of paper up to their mouths and watching which parts of the words move the paper Besides linguistic features such as affixes, cognates, text features, and structures, critical thinking (generating and testing ideas), author’s craft, writing, editing, revising, and social norms for interacting with others also transfer.
Collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. Multilingual learners enjoy listening to themselves and others read for pronunciation and fluency because reading with a buddy makes it a safe environment to take risks. They learn to delve deeper into their own thinking and comprehension by verbally summarizing what they read while getting help from a peer. Working with same-language peers becomes an opportunity for translanguaging as they put together strings of discourse to build comprehension. Equally valuable, heterogeneous grouping is effective when the native Spanish speakers help the native English speakers during reading in Spanish, and the tables turn when it is time to read in English. Collaborating on summaries also gives second-language learners opportunities to practice their new discourse skills and social–emotional competencies or collaborative skills. Whole-class interaction such as debriefing after reading a section provides additional opportunities to anchor both languages and prepare for elaborate writing.
Equity. Equity, in this context, involves giving all students access to excellent teaching and rigorous, rich, relevant learning opportunities in two languages. It means helping students learn as much as possible, building on their strengths and developing their talents and interests as we meet and anticipate their needs along the way. It means helping them develop stronger relationships with their multicultural peers.
The Intersection of Academic Language and Reading Comprehension in Both Languages
The integration of language and literacy continuously adds depth to word knowledge, grammar, comprehension, and the soft skills that help students build confidence, appreciate their own talents and cultures, and collaborate and communicate with peers. The figure on the previous page displays some of the subcomponents of literacy and biliteracy and how social and self-awareness skills and competencies can be developed. They are not in sequential order.
Dual language schools want quality implementation. A dual language–centered professional development design will provide learning opportunities to expand educator expertise in evidence-based learning for MLLs. Educators have effective coaches and scheduled opportunities to learn from colleagues, share successes, and repair common problems of implementation. Teachers are given time and space to test and refine their practice and reflect with others. The time afforded to revise lessons to integrate new practices is not a luxury but a prerequisite to successful delivery. Leadership plays a major role in providing these collaborative structures and solicits feedback from teachers on how to improve their learning spaces. Continuous focused, authentic praise and encouragement is routine for dual language teachers and dual language students.
REFERENCES
August, D., and Shanahan, T. (Eds.) (2006). Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
August, D., Beck, I. L., Calderón, M., Francis, D. J., Lesaux, N. K., and Shanahan, T. (2008). “Instruction and Professional Development.” In August, D., and T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing Reading and Writing in Second-Language Learners: Lessons from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
August, D., Calderón, M., and Carlo, M. (2001). Transfer of Reading Skills from Spanish to English: A Longitudinal Study of Young Learners. Report ED-98-CO-0071 to the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, US Department of Education.
Lindholm-Leary K. J. (1995). “Effective Leadership.” In Review of Research and Best Practices on Effective Features of Dual Language Education Programs (pp. 29–32).
Calderón, M. E. (2007). Teaching Reading to English Language Learners, Grades 6–12: A Framework for Improving Achievement in the Content Areas. Corwin Press.
Calderón, M. E. and Tartaglia, L. M., with H. Montenegro. (2023). Cultivating Competence in English Learners: Integrating Social-Emotional Learning with Language and Literacy. Solution Tree.
Cheung, A. C. K., and Slavin, R. E. (2012). “Effective Reading Programs for Spanish-Dominant English Language Learners (ELLs) in the Elementary Grades: A synthesis of research.” Review of Educational Research, 82(4), 351–395. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654312465472
Hiebert, A., and Kamil, M. (Eds.) (2005). Research and Development on Vocabulary. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Howard, E. R., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., Rogers, D., Olague, N., Medina, J., Kennedy, B., Sugarman, J., and Christian, D. (2018). Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education (3rd ed.). Center for Applied Linguistics.
Slavin, R. E., and Calderón, M. (Eds.) (2001). Effective Programs for Latino Students. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Calderón, M. E., Chamberlain, A., and Hennessy, M. (2011). “Reading and Language Outcomes of a Five-Year Randomized Evaluation of Transitional Bilingual Education.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(1), 47–58.
The Reading League and the National Committee for Effective Literacy (2023). “Joint Statement: Understanding the Difference: The science of reading and implementation for English learners/emergent bilinguals (ELs/EBs).” Reading League. www.thereadingleague.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Joint-Statement-on-the-Science-of-Reading-and-English-Learners_Emergent-Bilinguals-23.pdf
Margarita Espino Calderón ([email protected]) is a professor emerita at Johns Hopkins University. Her research centers on evidence-based learning for MLLs and their teachers. She is an international speaker, has over 100 publications, and works with hundreds of awesome teachers and administrators.
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