Candice Bixman-Murphy shares her best practices for teaching conversational and academic English

The Walter Johnson Academy of International Studies is an International Baccalaureate (IB) school where, at any given time, students speak up to 25 different native languages. As a Title 1 specialist and ELL student success advocate for grades 6–8, last year I taught students from countries including Bulgaria, Russia, Croatia, Bosnia, China, Egypt, Venezuela, Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico.

To help these students from diverse backgrounds learn both academic and conversational English, a multisensory approach is used that supplements reading and speaking with multiple sensory components, including:

Auditory Learning: Teacher instruction is accompanied with an online auditory component. Students are able to receive phonics instruction by seeing and listening simultaneously to phonetic sounds and letter/sound combinations. Literacy development is embedded in the program; students are afforded opportunities to listen to passages from the online library while simultaneously reading them.

Kinesthetic Learning: Students engage in manipulating and marking words to assist their decoding of words. This is done on individual student whiteboards, created on card stock and cased in cellophane sleeves, used at students’ desks. The same letter/sound manipulation occurs on the classroom whiteboard and SMART Board. All students are typically engaged in each activity—at their desks or at the board with peers.
Visual Learning: All lessons are projected and interactive on the SMART Board. In addition, students use anchor charts. These provide visual references for given skills and are posted in the classroom. Duplicate information is provided on smaller cards for students to reference for personal use at their workspaces. Examples of these anchor charts would be the listing of the five phonetic rules and two decoding skills—their “anchors” for decoding words.

Visual support is also encouraged during student writing. Students are taught to begin different writing tasks using various thinking maps, where they visually think/plan/jot notes in their native languages. They then reference this as they translate and write in English.
In this delivery, the multisensory approach is supported with a number of technology tools, including the following:

Reading Horizons: A program designed to teach English using all the above components (visual, auditory, kinesthetic). Tenets of the program include face-to-face teacher instructional time accompanied with online software. The software component of the program reinforces and affords additional practice of the skills presented. With online instruction offered in several languages, students can use the software for online assessments and to practice skills and read literary passages at home. I also use the online component of the program to review the real-time data collected—which is reviewed and shared with students several times a month.

SMART Board and SMART Notebook Software: SMART Notebook software is used in every lesson presented. The SMART Board is interactive, and lessons are continually revised. Vocabulary development is ongoing; definitions of words, along with pictures, are posted to help students make visual connections. Students are actively engaged as they go to the whiteboard and are physically moving about and interacting with the material on the board. Each lesson is saved for a quick review the following day. This has proved very rich for students to visually connect (once again) to prior knowledge.

Google Translate: While we are a 1:1 device school, Google Translate is the one phone app that is allowed in my classroom for student use. Google Translate is used in both reading and writing tasks. When students are reading and encounter a word they do not know, the app allows students to easily translate it from any language. In writing, students often will compose their text in their native language first, then use Google Translate to find the English counterpart word(s). Students have demonstrated so much more confidence and apparent comfort having this tool at their disposal; they seem able to convey their thoughts far more effectively and, I think, feel much more at ease in being able to do so.
A tenet of an IB school is the philosophy that we are all global learners. The strategies and tools mentioned above have helped our students do that and, we hope, be thinkers, inquirers, and reflective and principled global citizens.
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Candice Bixman-Murphy is a Title 1 specialist and ELL student success advocate for grades 6–8 at the Walter Johnson Academy of International Studies in Las Vegas, Nevada.

Ian Akhbar stresses the importance of appropriate cultural education

How shall I talk of the sea to the frog,
if it has never left its pond?
How shall I talk of the frost to the bird of the summerland,
if it has never left the land of its birth?
How shall I talk of life with the sage,
if he is prisoner of his doctrine?
Chung Tsu, 4th Century B.C. (Fantini n.d., 26)

Judging from the above quote, it would appear that being able to understand another person’s viewpoint is essential for effective communication. As the perceptions of most human beings are shaped by culture, the most important contribution intercultural communication studies have made for second-language teaching is that they have increased instructors’ awareness of the intricacies of managing a multicultural or a monolingual classroom in a foreign learning context, improving teaching and classroom quality for second-language students.

In support of this argument, this paper presents a brief background on the influence of culture on language, the benefits of studying L2 for cultural acquisition, the importance of recognizing different cultural motivations for L2 acquisition, intercultural differences that lead to misunderstandings and poor learning/teaching, the prevalence of ethnocentrism, and lastly, methods and approaches that may be useful in second-language teaching.
Kaplan (1966) was the first author to develop a deterministic hypothesis, suggesting that people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds organize discourse differently as a reflection of their native languages and cultures (Gonzalez, Chen, and Sanchez, 2001).

Culture through language thus both reflects and affects one’s worldview, serving as a sort of road map to how one perceives, interprets, thinks about, and expresses one’s view of the world (Scheu and Sanchez, 2002; Landis, 2003, 283). Therefore, culture, among other things, affects how one speaks, reads, and writes.

Through L2 study, it is believed that students gain a knowledge and understanding of the cultures that use that language. However, intercultural communication studies show that in order to achieve higher developmental levels, students need to understand the sociocultural and pragmatic norms of a particular cultural way of thinking (Gonzalez, Chen, and Sanchez, 2001). Research indicates that explicit instruction in cultural pragmatics (Goddard, 2002) helps students make sense of the values, attitudes, and communication norms taken for granted in many language textbooks, oral presentations, and letter writing (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 135). Studies also demonstrate that understanding the reasons for the behavior of L2 speakers enables learners to accept cultural differences more easily and thus creates a more positive attitude toward the target language.

Studies also show that the needs of different learners must be considered and must reflect different approaches in the L2 learning environment. For example, in a case study examining the motivations of Japanese college learners, the most significant motivations for learning English turned out to be a wish for foreign travel; the desire for greater contact with foreigners; English media use; personal development; and interest in cultural comparison. Low value was placed on learning English for instrumental reasons (McClelland, 1998, 48).

Once the exact nature of the learner’s orientation toward the goal of learning a language has been clarified, the teacher is in a better position to decide which strategies to utilize for promoting motivated behavior. Ideally, these findings can then be used to inform the design of the syllabus and classroom procedures, so that the needs and interests of the students are better fulfilled (McClelland, 1998, 7). In this way, intercultural communication studies are significant in identifying the motivations of various types of learners and in assisting the development of appropriate strategies to achieve communicative competence.
Studies have illustrated differences that exist in turn taking, degree of directness, attitudes to the acceptability of disagreement and direct criticism, forms of address, verbal and nonverbal feedback, appropriateness of topics, and adjacency pairs such as in greetings, apologies, compliments, requests, leave taking, etc. Different conversational styles are generally culturally determined.

Thus, an awareness of different styles and preferences can help prevent negative evaluations of ability and personality for both instructors and students. It is also suggested that much of the current learning in an intercultural classroom should be built around incidents of cross-cultural misunderstanding (Scheu and Sanchez, 2002). Instructors should make second-language students aware that native speakers may not always be prepared to accept the validity of differing styles of communication, which may result in communicative attempts being misunderstood or rejected. Students should be prepared for this possibility, being careful not to take such behavior personally or be discouraged by it.
Since it is likely that teachers and students will have different cultures of learning (i.e., behavioral expectations based on previous classroom experience), differences in norms of behavior may lead to “systematic and recurrent miscommunication in the classroom,” resulting in an environment that is not conducive to learning.

This applies not only to students’ behavior (or misbehavior) but also to teachers’ performance (Kato, 2001, 54; Scheu and Sanchez, 2002). As students’ perceptions about teaching and teachers clearly reflect their own cultures of learning, it can be said that understanding cultural differences is one way of improving teacher effectiveness (Kato, 2001, 63). With the awareness that students come from very different cultural backgrounds, which have an effect on learners—that is, Chinese and Japanese students often do not speak out, as they are from collectivist societies that value the group over the individual—a teacher can be more sensitive to their needs.

Intercultural communication studies also note that that many of the materials and methodologies used in second-language teaching are highly culture bound, and many teachers take it for granted (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 127) that these are the most advanced and effective materials and methodologies. This approach has been widely criticized as ignoring reality. If teachers do not clarify underlying assumptions, contempt and hostility may result on the part of the learner, who applies his own cultural framework as a yardstick (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 128). Teachers should be aware that the inappropriate application of L1 cultural norms in an L2 context can impede learning. However, learners do need to understand the cultural values and communication patterns preferred in the L2 society, so that they are aware of societal expectations and reactions (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 130).

Studies have helped to develop various theoretical approaches as tools which can serve to illuminate cultural differences to both teachers and learners and overcome ethnocentrism.
Broad frameworks, which researchers have identified, can aid in the interpretation of behavior and communicative intentions in intercultural interactions. These include collectivism versus individualism, high vs. low power distance (or hierarchical vs. egalitarian), achievement vs. ascription, universalism vs. particularism, and high-context vs. low-context cultures.

These frameworks work best when seen as a continuum on which cultures can be placed depending, for example, on the extent to which a culture values the group more highly than the individual or vice versa (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 133). For example, the widespread use of first names in Australian English can be better understood as an expression of the high value placed on egalitarianism in an individualistic culture (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 135). These frameworks can be useful in aiding instructors in cultural comparison through the L2 in the educational setting.

Researchers discussing the need to teach culture in the language classroom suggest that the best method is to compare the sociocultural and pragmatic norms of the learner’s first language with that of the target language and for teachers to act as cultural mediators and to explain the differences explicitly using a metacultural language, e.g., differences in thanking behavior between the Japanese and the English (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 131).

Natural semantic metalanguage researchers predict that in all languages it is possible to express meanings equivalent to “I,” “you,” “someone,” “something,” “people,” “do,” “happen,” “think,” “say,” “know,” “want,” “good,” “bad,” “big,” “small,” “this,” “when,” “where,” “because,” “can,” “if,” “not,” and “like,” in specific syntactic contexts. These meanings, known as semantic primes, are easily recognizable, easy to learn, and can and should, according to Goddard (2002), form part of the early syllabus of L2 learners. Studies indicate that semantic explications and cultural scripts allow one to draw connections between broad cultural themes, key lexical items, proverbs and common sayings, linguistic routines, and so on. Essentially, cultural scripts are phrased in simple, nonethnocentric terms. Cultural scripts are not intended as descriptions of how people behave, but rather as claims about what people think about how to behave (how to speak, how to think, how to feel, and so on) in different cultures (Goddard 2002). For teachers, the awareness that many languages are able to express equivalent meanings indicates that such meanings can be taught and recognized by L2 learners.

Intercultural communication studies indicate that teachers should also stress individual differences among students and the role of personality, while not dismissing the role of culture in the classroom (Landis, 2003, 297). In addition, language teachers should encourage students always to ask questions about who the people interacting (or writing) in exercises are, for what purpose the language is used, and in what context. These questions ensure that language texts are understood within their cultural, personal, and circumstantial dimensions (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 115). Conversation should be presented in the classroom in a naturalistic fashion (Landis, 2003, 296), i.e., by using unscripted videoed conversations to preserve the natural features of conversation. In utilizing unscripted or naturally occurring conversations, it is then possible to show learners how conversationalists interact and maintain face, what social strategies they employ, and how the spoken L2 is used (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 148). Studies are therefore useful in demonstrating that the introduction of cultural materials in language classes should be limited to those items that are most closely related to the actual speech act.

Studies also demonstrate that the amount of cultural materials to be introduced in the L2 classroom is influenced by the level of instruction and the range of uses to which the language is to be put. The Council of Europe’s threshold method, where the goal of language instruction is to allow the learner to cope with a society as a foreign visitor, is an example of this approach (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat, and Crozet, 1999, 67). Differentiation is also considered an effective way for teachers to offer meaningful instruction delivered around challenging content and designed to meet the needs of students at their appropriate levels and to help them achieve maximum growth (Theisen, n.d.). Teachers should also continuously be acquiring new knowledge regarding best practices and sharing that knowledge with colleagues (Montecel and Cortez, 2002). Professional development is essential if teachers are to improve their effectiveness in L2 classrooms.

Intercultural communication studies most effectively illustrate that language teachers need to go beyond monitoring linguistic production in the classroom and become aware of the complex and numerous processes of intercultural mediation that any second-language learner undergoes. The increasing heterogeneity of today’s classrooms reflects cultural, linguistic, cross-generational, immigration, and interethnic diversity. Accommodating this complex diversity demands a fundamental rethinking of the purposes, curriculum, goals, instruction, and intended outcomes of teaching. As demonstrated above, intercultural communication studies serve to prepare instructors for this formidable challenge by identifying how cultural differences influence teaching and learning in the classroom and by suggesting possible methods and approaches to improve L2 instruction and acquisition.

Studies identify the negative prevalence of ethnocentrism in teaching materials and methodologies, how intercultural differences can lead to misunderstandings and poor learning/teaching, and how important different cultural motivations are for L2 acquisition. Since learning about culture requires an intellectual effort, perhaps the L2 teachers’ most difficult task is balancing the need to learn about a language with the need to learn the language itself. Teachers require support for these efforts and professional learning to ensure multiculturalism in the classroom becomes a resource and not a limitation.

Ligia Martinez offers a strategy for Heritage Speakers of the Language

“Good writing is good conversation, only more so.”—Ernest Hemingway. If this quote is true, as many instructors of all languages would agree, then the solution to improving not only writing but reading is good conversations. Ensuring high-quality dialogues among students is a challenge in language classrooms, particularly in Spanish language courses for heritage speakers. At the high school level especially, many teachers lament that with the exception of a few students who speak only Spanish, it is a demanding task to keep native learners on the target language.

Yet, since Spanish courses for Hispanic learners are now commonplace, it is imperative to underscore certain emotionally charged factors which hinder Spanish language development among learners, along with some pedagogically related considerations. More importantly, a strategy is presented which is explicitly designed to strengthen oral language proficiency in native Spanish speakers. The ultimate objective of the classroom tool is to facilitate oral language learning, leading to improved reading and advanced writing.

Why is it so taxing to keep heritage speakers first on the target language and second engaged in conversations rich in high academic vocabulary? One reason is that many speakers feel that they already know the language, thus why should they use it? These students have heard Spanish since birth. In many cases, it is the only language spoken at home, to the detriment of mastering the English language at a superior level. Many adolescent learners listen to Spanish on the television, on the radio, at soccer games, and at other social occasions; oral production is not a priority because students understand the spoken language. Another reason is that sometimes learners are embarrassed to speak Spanish because, as expressed in their own words, they “sound funny.” English is stressed in all of their core classes; consequently, for many students, it is their comfort zone.

Spanish is the language associated with a sense of uneasiness in the case of many learners. Some young adults avoid their first language because, even though most of what is spoken is comprehensible, at least when it comes to daily conversations, they lack the confidence to express themselves well as it relates to topics such as history, literature, culture, science, or the environment. Using academic language to express perspectives related to core subjects in high school is intimidating for students who only use Spanish to communicate particulars about daily routines.

The aforementioned emotionally related factors exemplify the affective filter hypothesis presented in numerous publications, including Lingüística Aplicada by Dale A. Koike and Carol A. Klee. Popularized by linguist and educational researcher Stephen Krashen, the theory supports the notion that there are a series of variables including motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety which affect second-language acquisition. After twelve years of teaching Spanish courses for native-speaker students, it has been my experience that the described emotions associated with heritage learners negatively impact their oral language progression.

In terms of instruction, some language courses place too much emphasis on the grammatical aspects of the language instead of the interpersonal communication goals. Many instructors dwell on structural topics such as tenses and pronouns instead of practicing how to function in the language. Hence, learners become disenchanted and resort to employing Spanish only on a limited basis. Though redundant and unappealing, unfortunately this style of teaching persists, ultimately hindering student progress.
Another pedagogical challenge encountered by heritage speakers relates to the communicative activities presented in many of the Spanish texts.

These objectives often spotlight conversations related to daily routines such as counting, chatting about the weather, expressing likes and dislikes, buying groceries at a local market, and explaining future plans. Discussions about these themes are examples of lesson objectives which learners have either already mastered or heard repeatedly throughout their lives. Topics about day-to-day life are frequently uninteresting and unrelated to subjects in the core curriculum which address science, history, social science, or other areas of focus that intrigue and inspire thoughtful conversations.

Despite the obstacles presented, oral proficiency is a vital component of language development, across the learning continuum, which must be addressed. Moreover, since listening and speaking are the precursors to reading and writing, it stands to reason that if properly supported, reading comprehension improves in tandem with oral proficiency. Similarly, extended opportunities to refine oral skills lead to written discourse at a high level. If language comprehension and great writing can result from strengthening oral language competency, what strategy can ensure rich conversations which incorporate a high level of academic vocabulary?

I propose the use of the RICH strategy, Reformatting Information into Communication at a High level. After multiple years of encouraging heritage speakers to enhance their vocabulary skills, my experience with the RICH strategy has transformed my teaching. Let me summarize by citing one of my freshman students in a Native Spanish I classwho, after studying a unit on Guatemala, commented, “I feel like it opened our brains to new words, but it made me feel like I was still talking” (Brianna Herrera, fall 2015).

The premise is simple. First, authentic texts on a variety of subjects are found in the sections for extended reading in state-of-the-art Spanish textbooks. Aside from texts, amazing examples of authentic readings abound on the internet. Given an excerpt from a text, the instructor reformats the material and creates a guide for a conversation to be spoken by students in pairs. The information from the reading is placed alternatively in two columns, one for student A and one for student B. Directives are added, along with sentence frames, interjections, connecting phrases, and specific vocabulary, in order to ensure a free-flowing, logical conversation. Thus, instead of limiting the use of words to reading purposes, students use the guide and corresponding information to converse. In essence, learners utilize the writings to produce oral discourse.

Once the guide has been prepared and students have had an opportunity to read it, the instructor models. With student engagement, the teacher practices the activity while emphasizing the importance of attentive listening. Students then role play with the guide in hand and exchange roles once finished. Learners practice expressing both parts of the conversation while listening to key vocabulary. This activity is incorporated in seven- to ten-minute segments in the class and repeated two or three times a week, depending on the length of the guide. The first few times the conversation is practiced, students need to read their lines. With review, eventually learners are able to simply glance at their roles while expressing themselves. It is also imperative to point out that students are not required to say their parts word for word; it is not a script. They may adapt the dialogue as long as they include the critical information.

After about three practice runs, my experience has been that students learn the key vocabulary and use the terms without coaxing. Following active participation with this tool, students have suggested the opportunity to write their own guides for future interactions, instead of depending on the instructor. The guide is flexible and has the potential to meet a variety of language goals. Apart from the new expressions introduced, the RICH strategy may be used to simultaneously present grammar structures, for example. Thus, syntax objectives are introduced in context. The RICH strategy strengthens oral language proficiency by providing opportunities to converse about a variety of topics while using advanced-level expressions.

The RICH tool has other benefits. First, since it poses demands for the peers involved in role playing, it is a great opportunity to explicitly teach attentive listening skills. As explained by Kate Kinsella in the article “Attentive Listening: An Overlooked Component of Academic Interaction” (Language Magazine, March 2016), among educators there is often an unspoken assumption that listening processes and behaviors will naturally improve with exposure to the target language (28). Although she is referring to students who are learning English as a second language, the same principle applies to learning any language. Attentive listening is important. Kinsella explains further that

“within the second-language research community, listening has come to be recognized as a dynamic and complex skill set rather than a passive endeavor.” A central part of ensuring success with the RICH strategy is clearly explaining and modeling how students demonstrate attentive listening through body language, eye contact, and physical posture. The ultimate goal is for learners to speak and listen to each other in a position described as “knee to knee and eye to eye.” Modeled and rehearsed effectively, the RICH strategy facilitates oral language expression of higher-level vocabulary in Spanish; simultaneously, the tool challenges learners to build listening skills.

ACTFL’s 21st-century World Readiness Standards for Learning Languages require students to compare and value cultural aspects and perspectives between countries with the same language, like those in the Hispanic world. The RICH strategy poses many opportunities for learners to discuss demographics, geography, history, celebrities, customs, and traditions; these topics are all integral aspects of culture. Instead of limiting the acquisition of this knowledge to reading, the approach ensures that students explain and discuss the texts. Since the information in the chosen readings is simply formatted into a conversation, learners access only two to three sentences at a time. The result is a student-friendly and straightforward way of interpreting cultural information. My experience with choosing articles and short exposés is derived from using the Descubre series published by Vista Higher Learning and the ¡Aventura! series by EMC Publishing. Both contain excellent examples of culturally relevant Spanish topics. Nevertheless, the guide is flexible and adaptable to current event articles from the internet, reports, pamphlets, and other sources used to promote cultural awareness.

Reading is a complex process which involves a social dimension in the classroom, according to the research and observation completed for Reading for Understanding by Ruth Schoenbach, Cynthia Greenleaf, and Lynn Murphy (24). While implementing the RICH strategy, students read and process information a few sentences at a time, which facilitates reading comprehension. To read effectively, students confer with their partners, pose questions, and of course receive teacher feedback. The exercise of expressing points of confusion and confirming postulations is an opportunity to mediate meaning. These collaborative exchanges in a classroom can result in more active and strategic readers. While promoting good reading practices and teamwork, the RICH strategy results in vocabulary development and improved reading comprehension of high-level vocabulary in the target language.

As students participate in classroom activities in groups, language serves as a tool for cognitive growth. Numerous investigations support the fact that vocabulary learning, in particular, takes place during collaborative activities when learners are mediating meaning, as opposed to during individual work. A number of these studies are thoroughly described by C. Cecilia Tocaimaza-Hatch in “Mediated Vocabulary in Native Speaker-Learner Interactions during an Oral Portfolio Activity,” Foreign Language Annals, 2016. In one of these studies, students learning Korean are divided into two groups.

One group completes vocabulary learning with a partner, while other students work individually. In post-test assessments, students who work collaboratively outperform those who complete the task alone in knowledge of target-word meaning and function (Kim, 2008). In a similar manner, the RICH approach provides students with opportunities to discuss lexical knowledge in pairs before using the vocabulary in context. During the second phase, when students role play while using the new terminologies, they actually state the terms in a conversation. The result is a collaborative activity for vocabulary acquisition.

The RICH strategy supports the Common Core English Language Arts Standard for Speaking and Listening, which states that students are expected to “initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 9–10 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively.” Depending on the conversation guide design, students are able to participate in discussions and express their own ideas in a convincing manner as they delve into the informational text.

First, students read the directives and information in pairs. While reading, they must discuss the meaning of unfamiliar words in English and Spanish with peers. Second, since directives can include opportunities to convince and to interject opinions and reactions, learners have the opportunity to participate in a wide range of in-depth discussions. Clearly, conversation instructions which promote chances for learners to make cultural comparisonsand to discuss current affairs, historical events, or other topics of interest support the Common Core Standard for Speaking and Listening.

Specifically designed to strengthen oral language proficiency in native Spanish speakers, the RICH strategy embraces one of the most enjoyable activities for high school students: talking with their peers during instructional time. The RICH tool engages learners in conversations rich in academic vocabulary. Students listen to each other and produce exchanges which enhance their knowledge of high-level vocabulary. While initially the creation of the RICH conversation guides requires preparation, if practiced effectively, my experience has been that students volunteer to create their own directives, because ultimately they look forward to interacting with their classmates. When students are actively participating in conversations, the responsibility for learning is transferred from the teacher to the students. The instructor becomes a facilitator who monitors a student-friendly approach to learning high-level vocabulary. Ultimately, the implication of advancing oral language development is that it will result in improved reading comprehension in tandem with writing skills.

References
www.actfl.org/publications/all/national-standards-foreign-language-education (visited September 2016)
http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/ (visited August 2016)
https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies/chunking (visited August 2016)
¡Aventura! Español 2 Annotated Teacher’s Edition. St. Paul, MN: EMC Publishing, LLC, 2013. Print.
Descubre 1 Lengua y Cultura del Mundo Hispano, Teacher’s Annotated Edition. Boston, MA: Vista Higher Learning, 2014. Print.
Kinsella, Kate. “Attentive Listening: An overlooked component of academic interaction.” Language Magazine (March 2016), pp. 28–35.
Koike, Dale A. and Carol A. Klee. Lingüística Aplicada. Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Son, Inc. 2003.
Schoenbach, Ruth, Cynthia Greenleaf, and Lynn Murphy. Reading for Understanding: A guide to improving reading in middle and high school classrooms. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.
Tocaimaza-Hatch, Cecilia, C. “Mediated Vocabulary in Native Speaker-Learner Interactions during an Oral Portfolio Activity.” Foreign Language Annals 49, no. 2 (2016):336–354.

Ligia Estrella Martinez is a teacher with both a multiple subject teaching credential and a single subject teaching credential in Spanish. Her academic background includes a master of science degree in urban planning and most recently a master of arts degree in Spanish from Sacramento State University. She has more than 20 years of teaching and translating experience in Maturín, Venezuela, where she established a local English language learning company, Executive Language Center. Ms. Martinez has eleven years of experience teaching AP Spanish and Spanish to heritage speakers at Dixon High School in California.