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Art of Arabic Language Celebrated

Monday 18 December marked the United Nations World Arabic Language Day, an annual tribute to Arabic language and culture.

Celebrated in many Arabic nations and by Arabic diasporas worldwide, this year’s theme was “Arabic: The Language of Poetry and Arts” and was organized by the UN body for language, in conjunction with the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud Foundation Program for the Arabic Language, at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris.

According to UNESCO, this year’s commemoration aimed to “bring together researchers, academics, youth, and heads of international institutions,” featuring discussions on the Arabic language’s “influence on shaping knowledge, societal transformations through poetry, and its impact on the arts, while fostering cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue.”

Celebrations began with speeches featuring Assistant Director-General for Social and Human Sciences at UNESCO Gabriela Ramos, Saudi ambassador to France and the Principality of Monaco and Permanent Delegate of the Kingdom to UNESCO Fahad bin Mayouf Al-Ruwaili, and Saleh Al-Khulaifi, director general of the Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud charitable foundation.

The roundtables at the Paris event each featured their own topics of discussion around the themes:

  • Philosophy and Poetry: The Contribution of Arabic Poetry to Knowledge Shaping and Social Transformations
  • Arabic Language and Arts: Broadening Scopes of Cultural Diversity
  • Arab Latinos!: The Arabic Imprint in Latin America and the Caribbean

Looking back, UNESCO reflects “On 18 December 2012, UNESCO celebrated the World Arabic Language Day for the first time. Since then, this annual date has been dedicated to highlighting Arabic’s legacy and immense contribution to human civilization, and recognizing its valuable contribution to intercultural dialogue and its capacity to enrich cultural diversity and strengthen social cohesion.”

World Arabic Language Day was established in 2010 and this year’s global event coincided with the 50th anniversary of the UN’s official adoption of the Arabic language. One of the six official languages, Arabic is spoken by over 450 million people across the world and is of specific importance to the global Muslim community.

You All Belong Here

You know that feeling when you enter a room and instantly realize there is a meeting happening and you were not invited? Think about your actions and reactions. Do you apologize? Do you try to make yourself small? Do you try to quietly close the door to minimize further disruption? It’s really embarrassing, right? Now, imagine that same feeling every time you entered a room. That would be painful and not very motivating. Our goal should be to ensure that students never have that feeling when they enter their schools and classrooms. Instead, they should know that they belong in these learning environments. Notice that we talked about the feelings that occurred in this situation. As Cohen (2022) notes, “Belonging is the feeling that we’re part of a larger group that values, respects, and cares for us—and to which we feel we have something to contribute” (p. 5).

This definition confirms that belonging is a feeling and that the feeling is about membership; we are part of a group. But it’s more than that. We believe that the group values, respects, and cares for us. Each of those is a critical aspect of the feeling that we can create in our classrooms and schools. But really think about the last part of Cohen’s definition: something to contribute. When we have a strong sense of belonging, we believe that we have things to contribute to the group. In other words, at school, belonging involves receiving and giving help. Multilingual learners should not simply be the receivers of help but rather regularly be placed in situations in which they can offer help.

Why Belonging?
From an academic perspective, there is considerable evidence indicating that students who feel they belong learn more. According to the Visible Learning database, the effect size of belonging is .46 (www.visiblelearningmetax.com), an above-average influence with the potential to accelerate academic learning. The impact of belonging also extends far beyond academics. Studies suggest that belonging also affects our health and well-being (e.g., Raufelder et al., 2021). In fact, a sense of belonging can be life-saving; there is evidence that suicide rates are lower among students who have a strong sense of belonging (Vélez-Grau and Lindsey, 2022). There are also studies indicating that a positive sense of belonging correlates with positive health outcomes, including self-reports of wellness and reduced numbers of doctor visits (Walton and Cohen, 2011).

Fostering Belonging for Multilingual Learners
We have adapted and adopted a model first proposed by Eric Carter (2021) and his research review of belonging for students with intellectual disabilities. We have used the eleven dimensions of belonging to identify actions educators can take to ensure that their students experience a positive sense of belonging. An illustration of the eleven dimensions can be found in Figure 1 (Smith et al., 2024). We’ll focus on each of these dimensions and discuss how schools and classrooms can foster a sense of belonging for multilingual learners.

Welcomed:
Are we extending a warm welcome whenever multilingual learners arrive? How are students greeted when they arrive? There is a surprising amount of research indicating that greeting students at the door has positive impacts on academics and engagement while reducing problematic behavior (e.g., Cook et al., 2018). But equally important is how students are greeted when they are late. Sometimes students feel shamed by circumstances beyond their control. Of course, educators should analyze patterns of tardies and work to ensure that students are in class every minute possible. However, the way we welcome students whenever they arrive sends a powerful message about their belonging.

Invited:
Are we pursuing multilingual learners’ presence and actively extending new invitations? All classes and extracurricular activities should be open to multilingual learners. Unfortunately, some students do not feel invited to be a member of some clubs and activities. Schools should review their policies and practices to ensure that all students feel invited to the range of opportunities that exist. For example, school leadership and club committees should consider what student voices are not represented and in what ways they can be invited to be members.

Present:
Do we ensure that all students are present for learning? Attendance is a significant concern, and missing school compromises opportunities to learn. Educators need to redouble their efforts to ensure that students are in school, in their classes, engaged with their peers to the maximum extent possible. And we need to question and interrupt our disproportionate suspension and expulsion policies that cause some students, including multilingual learners, to miss millions of instructional days (NEA Today, 2021). Further, we need to ask ourselves: Is our community composed of individuals whose languages, experiences, and backgrounds vary? Educators should analyze their demographics and recruit students with different languages and backgrounds to their campuses.

Known:
Do we know multilingual learners personally and for the strengths they possess? It should go without saying, but educators should know their students’ names and how to pronounce them. Sadly, that’s not always the case. More than half of students surveyed believed that their teachers did not know their names, and more than half did not believe that their teachers noticed when they were absent (a reminder about the topic of being present) (surveys.quagliainstitute.org). But this factor also notes the value of a strengths-based approach rather than a focus on what students cannot do. The shift in language to multilingual learner moves away from deficit thinking, but more is needed. When students are discussed, their teachers should start with strengths, asking themselves what the students can already do. We are not in denial about unfinished learning and the need to develop academic, linguistic, and social skills. But focusing on deficits increases the likelihood that we lower our expectations and accept less rigorous work from students.

Accepted:
Are we receiving multilingual learners unconditionally and graciously? Our race, ethnicity, religion, family structure, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and other characteristics and experiences define who we are and how we experience the world around us. Students have unique identity profiles that are sometimes valued and sometimes not. The task of educators is to ensure that students feel valued, accepted, and celebrated for who they are. There is even evidence that placing welcoming signs around the classroom and school sends a message to students that their identities are accepted. Of course, the actions of educators must align with the words of acceptance that are displayed around the school.

Involved:
Are multilingual learners actively engaged with, and alongside, peers in shared learning and common goals? Collaboration in learning is an important social aspect of a school. Students need to know that their contributions are important and that they have opportunities to work with others to complete meaningful work. This requires language supports, which are another dimension of belonging, as well as the design of tasks that provide students with chances to collaborate. Being involved also means that students are active with their peers and that their teachers structure the groups to maximize participation and success.

Heard:
Are we seeking out multilingual learners’ preferences and perspectives on issues that matter? Student voice matters, yet there are very few policies in most schools that have been revised or implemented based on students’ perspectives. Educators should regularly seek out the perspective of students, such as through the MyVoice survey (surveys.quagliainstitute.org), and then act on the ideas from students. In classrooms, teachers can make sure that various students are heard by creating different response opportunities. Sometimes, teachers can use universal response, in which all students share their answers at the same time (such as on dry erase boards, using response cards, or in polls); other times they can seek volunteers, while other times randomly calling on students. When using random student generation tools, such as name sticks, make sure that the students know that they can seek help. In addition, it’s useful to identify the student before the question and to allow sufficient wait time for the student to process the language.

Supported:
Are we providing the assistance multilingual learners need to participate fully and meaningfully? In addition to high-quality instruction that includes teacher modeling as well as opportunities to collaborate and practice, multilingual learners need sufficient scaffolding to build their success. We have previously discussed the types of scaffolds useful for multilingual learners (e.g., Fisher et al., 2023). As a reminder, teachers can use just-in-case and just-in-time scaffolds to ensure that students have the support they need to experience success. Without sufficient support, students will think they do not belong in the given class and may give up on themselves.

Befriended:
Are we creating opportunities for friendships to form and deepen between all our students? Educators cannot force students to be friends, but we can provide opportunities for friendships to develop. Teachers have an influence over reducing barriers to friendship formation. We can form seating charts that encourage students to meet a range of peers. We can structure group tasks that encourage interactions between and among students. And we can notice when there is any type of bullying behavior and immediately interrupt it. Further, we can help students repair relationships when they are damaged. Having friends is protective against bullying and increases the enjoyment and sense of belonging in school (Thompson and Byrnes, 2011).

Needed:
Are we recognizing multilingual learners’ talents and providing them opportunities to share what they know with others? As we noted earlier in this article, contributing to the group reinforces a sense of belonging. The question is, how do students know that they are needed? Some teachers create classroom jobs and responsibilities to ensure that all students know they are needed. Others focus on peer tutoring structures that allow students to teach each other the things that they have learned. In addition, service learning, internships, and other opportunities to give back to the community can provide students with experiences helping others.

Loved:
Are we loving our multilingual learners deeply and unconditionally? Some argue that this is not really an aspect of belonging for our students. But remember the definition of belonging from the beginning of this article? It’s a feeling. And what better feeling than to feel loved? The Greeks identified eight different types of love. We’re talking about agape, the love for humanity, and developing the love of self. When students feel loved, they develop secure attachments with their teachers, which contributes to their sense of belonging.

Conclusion
As Carter and Biggs (2021) note, “We all hope that students will feel truly ‘at home’ in their classrooms. We want them to feel valued and accepted by their peers and teachers. We strive to create connections among students that lead to reciprocal relationships.” Without a strong sense of belonging to their classrooms and schools, students are placed at risk. When students know that they belong, they attend school more often, form strong relationships with peers and teachers, enjoy the educational experience, learn a lot, and are proud of themselves. It’s up to us, their teachers and leaders, to create conditions in which students know that they are valued, respected, and cared for and have things to contribute to the group.

References
Álvarez, B. (2021). “School Suspensions Do More Harm Than Good.” NEA Today. www.nea.org/nea-today/all-news-articles/school-suspensions-do-more-harm-good

Carter, E. W. (2021). “Dimensions of Belonging for Individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.” In J. L. Jones and K. L. Gallus (Eds.), Belonging and Resilience in Individuals with Developmental Disabilities (pp. 13–33). Springer Nature.

Carter, E., and Biggs, E. E. (2021). Creating Communities of Belonging for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities. University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

Cohen, G. L. (2022). Belonging: The Science of Creating Connection and Bridging Divides. Norton.

Cook, C. R., Fiat, A., Larson, M., Daikos, C., Slemrod, T., Holland, E. A., Thayer, A. J., and Renshaw, T. (2018). “Positive Greetings at the Door: Evaluation of a low-cost, high-yield proactive classroom management strategy.” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(3), 149–159.

Fisher, D., Frey, N., and Almarode, J. (2023). “Scaffolding Success for Multilingual Learners.” Language, 22(9), 27–29.

Raufelder, D., Neumann, N., Domin, M., Lorenz, R. C., Gleich, T., Golde, S., Romund, L., Beck, A., and Hoferichter, F. (2021). “Do Belonging and Social Exclusion at School Affect Structural Brain Development during Adolescence?” Child Development, 92(6), 2213–2223.

Smith, D., Frey, N., Fisher, D., Stewart, R., and Pompei, V. (2024). Belonging in School: An Illustrated Playbook for Creating a Place Where Kids Want to Learn and Teachers Want to Stay. Corwin.

Thompson, J., and Byrnes, D. (2011). “A More Diverse Circle of Friends.” Multicultural Perspectives, 13(2), 93–99.

Vélez-Grau, C., and Lindsey, M. A. (2022). “Do Connectedness and Self-Esteem Play a Role in the Transition to Future Suicide Attempts among Latina and Latino Youth with Suicide Ideation?” Children and Youth Services Review, 139, 1–9.

Walton, G. M., and Cohen, G. L. (2011). “A Brief Social-Belonging Intervention Improves Academic and Health Outcomes of Minority Students.” Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451.

Nancy Frey and Doug Fisher are professors of educational leadership at San Diego State University and teacher leaders at Health Sciences High. They have co-authored many books including Confronting the Crisis of Engagement: Creating Focus and Resilience for Students, Staff, and Communities (Corwin Press, 2022).

Alejandro Gonzalez Ojeda, EdD, is an assistant professor of educational leadership at San Diego State University, where he is also the graduate advisor for the Preliminary Administrative Services Credential program.

Bahasa Indonesia Made UNESCO Official Language

Bahasa Indonesia, the official and national language of Indonesia, has been designated an official language of UNESCO at its recent General Conference in Paris.

The official move to honor the lingua franca of the 17,500 islands making up the Indonesian Archipelago was confirmed at the 42nd Session of the UNESCO General Conference in November. This makes Bahasa Indonesia UNESCO’s 10th official language, in addition to Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Hindi, Italian, Russian, Spanish, and Portuguese.

Mohamad Oemar, the Indonesian Ambassador to France, Andorra, and Monaco, and Permanent Delegate to UNESCO, explained that Bahasa Indonesia is spoken by more than 275 million people. Worldwide, curricula in Bahasa Indonesia are being used in 52 countries, with approximately 150,000 non-native speakers.

”The recognition of Indonesian as the official language of the UNESCO General Conference will have a positive impact on peace, harmony, and the achievement of sustainable development goals not only at the national level but also throughout the world,” he said, as reported by Antara News.

The official recognition of the language may be expected to increase cultural and economic awareness of Indonesia globally. It also highlights Indonesia’s commitment to cultural development and its connection with other nations. In its 11 points of reasoning towards the decision, the official document by UNESCO states:

“The recognition of Bahasa Indonesia as the official language of the General Conference of UNESCO would not only ensure equitable information dissemination, promote inclusivity, nurture a deeper understanding and appreciation of its language and literature, but also strengthen collaboration with UNESCO, and reinforce its commitment to advancing global cultures, peace and sustainable development. Moreover, it is expected to elevate Indonesia’s international prominence, fostering greater cooperation and benefitting both the country and UNESCO’s mission worldwide.”

“The Indonesian language has been the nation’s uniting force since pre-independence times, especially through the Youth Pledge in 1928, so it is able to connect various ethnicities in Indonesia,” Mohamad Oemar added.

ChatGPT Fails Spanish Test

Researchers from Spain’s Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM), together with colleagues from the Carlos III University of Madrid (UC3M) and the University of Valladolid (UVa), have developed an application, called ChatWords, to evaluate the knowledge that the artificial intelligence system has of different languages. The initial study of the more than 90,000 words found in the Royal Academy’s Spanish dictionary shows that the ChatGPT-3.5-turbo model is missing approximately 20% of them. And of the remaining 80%, it misunderstands up to 5%.

To better understand the results, it should be taken into account that a Spanish speaker recognizes 30,000 words on average, that is, almost a third of the whole Spanish lexicon. It may seem like a poor score compared to the machine, but with artificial intelligence systems, the lexicon is the basic building block, and analyzing the meanings ChatGPT of the words is often, we see that there is a nondisputable percentage in which the sense he points out is wrong, says Javier Conde, assistant professor at the Higher Technical School of Telecommunications Engineers (ETSIT) of UPM and one of the researchers. “Maybe ChatGPT isn’t as clever as it looks,” he adds.

It is reasonable to presume that large language models (LLMs), based on artificial intelligence and designed to process and understand natural language on a huge scale, will not use words they do not know. This raises another concern. Pedro Reviriego, professor at ETSIT also involved in the research, points out that it is essential to guarantee the lexical richness in the text created by artificial intelligence.

The ChatWords app is open source and is designed to be easy to use and expand. The researchers’ next step is to evaluate other languages and LLMs to better understand the lexical knowledge that artificial intelligence tools have and how it may evolve as new versions and tools appear. His work is part of the Project Networks of the Future for Data Processing and Operator Centers, funded by the State Research Agency, and is supported by OpenAI, the US laboratory responsible for ChatGPT, through its program of access to researchers.

Martínez, G., Conde, J., Reviriego, P., Merino-Gómez, M., Hernández, J. A., and Lombardi, F. “How Many Words Does ChatGPT Know? The answer is ChatWords.” arXiv:2309.16777

Fastest Growth in US International Students in 40 Years

The Open Doors 2023 Report on International Educational Exchange shows that the US hosted more than one million (1,057,188) international students during the 2022/23 academic year, a 12% increase compared to the previous academic year. It is the fastest growth rate in more than 40 years.

Released by the US Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs and the Institute of International Education (IIE), the report provides a critical annual benchmark on the state of international educational exchange and student mobility. International students accounted for 6% of the total US higher education population that year and contributed nearly $38 billion to the US economy, according to the US Department of Commerce.

Assistant US secretary of state Lee Satterfield said: “Students from around the world have chosen the United States as the top destination for international study. International education is a vehicle that promotes peace and cross-cultural connections and provides the tools necessary to address the shared challenges of our time. It continues to shape the leaders of the future, both here at home and abroad, and we look forward to doing even more to attract international students to the United States and serve as the global leader in international education.”

The growth is in line with figures released in June showing that the number of overseas students on intensive English programs (IEPs) grew by 63% to reach near pre-pandemic levels.

Soaring beyond pre-pandemic levels to nearly record highs, the number of international students who enrolled for the first time at a US college or university during the 2022/23 academic year increased by 14% year-over-year to 298,523, building on the 80% increase in the prior year, and 48 states reported an increase in international students.

“Over one million international students studying in the US reflects a strong rebound, with the number approaching pre-pandemic levels. This reinforces that the US remains the destination of choice for international students wishing to study abroad, as it has been for more than a century,” said Allan E. Goodman, IIE CEO. “The Open Doors 2023 Report emphasizes that international education is resilient and also integral to universities and countries looking to support global innovation, collaboration, and peace.”

For the first time since 2014/15, international student enrollment across all academic levels increased in 2022/23. Graduate student enrollment increased the most, with 467,027 international students pursuing master’s, doctorate, or professional degrees (+21% year-over-year). Undergraduate student enrollment grew (+1% year-over-year) for the first time in five years.

In addition to enrolled international students, 198,793 students pursued optional practical training (OPT), which supports students to gain practical work experiences after they complete their academic studies.

China remained the top-sending country in 2022/23, with 289,526 students studying in the US (-0.2% year-over-year). India, the second-largest sending country, reached an all-time high of 268,923 international students in 2022/23, an increase of 35% year-over-year.

Most places of origin (23 of the top 25) increased their total numbers of international students in the US in 2022/23. In addition, eight places of origin, including Bangladesh, Colombia, Ghana, India, Italy, Nepal, Pakistan, and Spain, reached all-time highs in international student numbers.

Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest regional growth (+18% year-over-year), and Ghana entered the top 25 places of origin for the first time with 6,468 international students. Students studied in the US from over 200 places of origin.

US Study Abroad Bounced Back Even during Pandemic
The report shows that during the 2021/2022 academic year, US study abroad rebounded to more than half of pre-pandemic levels, with 188,753 students pursuing opportunities abroad for academic credit. The US study abroad total reflects the 2021/22 academic year when travel and study abroad programming were still affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, especially during the fall and winter. The rebound signals a critical turning point in students’ ability to pursue in-person experiences abroad safely.

“International education, both here at home and abroad, is the ultimate unifier— there is something for everyone. American students from two-year community colleges to four-year universities and beyond, across a wide range of fields, can study abroad all over the world and bring new perspectives back to their communities,” said Satterfield, who noted her college-aged son studied abroad during the spring semester of 2023.

During the 2021/2022 academic year, nearly half of all students studied abroad in the summer (49%), and the leading destinations continued to be Italy, the United Kingdom, Spain, and France. There are positive signs of further growth, as IIE’s 2023 Spring Snapshot survey reported that 83% of US institutions expected study abroad totals to increase in 2022/23 and beyond.

Fall 2023 Snapshot
The Fall 2023 Snapshot on International Student Enrollment shows continued momentum for international student mobility in the US. Higher education institutions reported an 8% increase in international students in fall 2023, with growth across all academic levels and OPT. For all places of origin, India continues to be the highest priority for undergraduate and graduate recruitment. Seventy percent of US institutions are prioritizing undergraduate outreach and 80% of US institutions are prioritizing graduate outreach for students in India. Over 630 US higher education institutions participated in the Fall 2023 Snapshot survey.

Small Investment Offers Big Literacy Gains

Research by Stanford University found that 75 of the lowest-performing California elementary schools that received funding from an out-of-court settlement made significant progress on third-grade state Smarter Balanced tests this year.

Major news outlets, including the Los Angeles Times, heralded the paper, “The Achievement Effects of Scaling Early Literacy Reforms,” as justification for implementation of science of reading– aligned instruction, but the report’s official summary is less conclusive: “While policymakers have demonstrated considerable enthusiasm for ‘science of reading’ initiatives, the evidence on the impact of related reforms when implemented at scale is limited. In this pre-registered, quasi-experimental study, we examine California’s recent initiative to improve early literacy across the state’s lowest-performing elementary schools. The Early Literacy Support Block Grant (ELSBG) provided teacher professional development grounded in the science of reading as well as aligned supports (e.g., assessments and interventions), new funding (about $1,000 per student), spending flexibility within specified guidelines, and expert facilitation and oversight of school-based planning. We find that ELSBG generated significant (and cost-effective) improvements in ELA achievement in its first two years of implementation (0.14 SD) as well as smaller, spillover improvements in math achievement.”

The study, from researchers Sarah Novicoff and Thomas Dee, examines the impact of California’s Early Literacy Support Block Grant, which aims to support K–3 instruction in state schools with at least third-grade reading scores. Beginning in the 2020–21 school year, the program provides more than $50 million in new state funding for literacy initiatives with a focus on science of reading–aligned pedagogy.

The results indicate that the $50 million the schools received for effective reading instruction in the primary grades carried over to third grade after two years of funding.

The 75 schools had the lowest scores in the state in 2019 on the third-grade Smarter Balanced test. They received the money, averaging $1,144 per year for the 15,541 K–3 students, under the settlement in the lawsuit Ella T. v. the State of California, brought by the public interest law firm Public Counsel. It argued that the state violated the students’ constitutional right to an education by failing to teach them how to read adequately.

Eligible schools were chosen from various districts, including Los Angeles Unified, San Francisco Unified, West Contra Costa Unified, and others. The funding promoted the literacy instruction known as the science of reading, which includes explicit phonics instruction in kindergarten and first grade, along with the development of vocabulary, oral language, comprehension, and writing.

Schools had the flexibility to choose to fund literacy coaches and bilingual reading specialists, new curriculum and instructional materials, expanded access to libraries, and literacy training for parents.

The study concluded that the block grant “generated significant (and cost[1]effective) improvements in English language arts achievement in its first two years of implementation as well as smaller, spillover improvements in math achievement,” wrote researchers Thomas Dee, a professor at Stanford’s Graduate School of Education, and Sarah Novicoff, a Stanford doctoral candidate in educational policy.

Dee and Novicoff were unable to analyze why some schools performed better than others, which could be useful in shaping the state’s policy on early literacy. Unlike some states with comprehensive literacy plans, California does not collect any assessment data that school districts collect from TK to second grade. And, under the rules that the state negotiated in the settlement, participating schools were not required to submit their assessment data to the California Department of Education; most voluntarily did in the second year, but many did not in the first year. It is also unclear how many schools adhered to their literacy plans or focused on less effective or ineffective strategies for improvement.

Dee noted the academic gains from the grant were relatively large compared with the cost, making the program quite cost-effective—an effect size that is 13 times higher than general, untargeted spending.

Goldberg said the grant was efficient “because early intervention is cheaper and it’s more effective than waiting until third grade or later grades to provide reading support.”

Report Highlights Language Study Shortfalls

Many language programs at US colleges and universities remain strong despite challenging national and local conditions, according to a comprehensive new report, Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2021, released last month by the Modern Language Association (MLA). While total enrollments in languages other than English continued the sustained decline that began after their historic peak in 2009, more than one-third of all language programs saw an increase in enrollments or remained stable, and several languages showed gains in overall enrollments.

Total language enrollments on US college campuses decreased by 16.6% between 2016 and 2021, marking the largest decline in the history of the census. From 1980 until 2009, the year immediately following the 2007–08 financial crisis, language enrollments at US colleges and universities saw strong growth, rising from 924,337 in 1980 to 1,673,566 in 2009. Enrollments now stand at approximately the same level as in 1998. Part, but not all, of this drop in language enrollments can be attributed to the overall decrease in the number of students enrolling in colleges and universities, as institutions have seen an 8.0% decline in enrollment since 2016.

The drop in enrollments was steepest at two-year institutions, falling by 24.2%; enrollments at four-year institutions declined by 14.7%. This disparity has concerning implications for equity of and access to language study; the two-year institutions whose programs are disproportionately at risk provide critical educational opportunities for underserved communities of students.

Despite these challenging conditions for language study, many language programs continue to flourish. Among all programs and for all languages, 38.3% increased or were stable. The percentage of programs that increased or were stable was even greater for advanced undergraduate study (50.0%) and graduate study (56.5%). Moreover, three of the 15 most commonly taught languages saw an overall increase in enrollments. Korean continued its remarkable growth, rising by 38.3%, followed by Biblical Hebrew (9.1%) and American Sign Language (0.8%).

The report includes case studies of ten institutions from across the country where language programs are thriving. Many of these institutions achieved remarkable growth over the past several years, and instructors and administrators share how their approaches to language learning have enabled their programs to flourish. What works? Access to robust institutional and financial support, the development of close ties between language programs and local communities, an emphasis on real-life language application and professional advancement, and courses that highlight the cultural component of language learning. “In a difficult time for language study, it is vital that we learn from these extraordinary success stories,” said Paula M. Krebs, the executive director of the MLA.

“These strong programs offer valuable strategies for institutions with struggling programs, and they speak to how transformative full-throated institutional support can be for language learning.” The most successful language programs had several key characteristics in common, including ample funding, support from administrative offices and other departments, a willingness to prioritize studying the cultural component of language, and a focus on applying language learning in real-life contexts.

Data from this census are also being added to the MLA Language Map, where visitors can view language programs and enrollments in the context of where languages are spoken in the US. For more information, visit www.mla.org/Resources/Guidelines-and-Data/Reports-and-Professional-Guidelines/Enrollments-in-Languages-Other-Than-English-in-United-States-Institutions-of-Higher-Education.

Recognizing Language Disorders in Multilingual Children

Communication is a human right, in any and all languages. Children of all backgrounds start communicating from birth, though this communication looks and sounds different as they grow and learn. Early on, children communicate with their cries, sounds, eyes, facial expressions, and movements. As they mature and interact with responsive caregivers and their environment, children build upon these behaviors to use gestures and meaningful, intelligible words to communicate. Whether learning one or multiple languages, children are uniquely equipped to acquire and expand upon the language/s they are exposed to and practice.   

We use language for many purposes, such as requesting items or people we need, sharing our ideas, and fostering social connections. It is embedded into listening, speaking, understanding, reading, and writing. Learning and using multiple languages offers many personal, social, and societal benefits, such as supporting additional language learning and communication skills, developing stronger social and familial bonds, and improving problem-solving skills. The benefits of multilingualism should be emphasized, as many families (and even some professionals) falsely believe that learning more than one language can confuse a child or contribute to a language disorder. This is not true.   

Families and caregivers should be encouraged to use the language/s they are most comfortable using with their children.

Rich language models and interactions are critically important—they help children learn new words, produce sounds, use sentences, tell stories, and socialize. Exposure to more words and conversations, no matter the language, can ultimately help children succeed in school. Building strong oral and/or manual communication skills forms the foundation for literacy development and academic success.  

Language Development in Multilingual Children

Children learn at their own pace, and therefore, some meet communication milestones earlier or later than others. Though the sequence and age ranges for these communicative behaviors may vary slightly from expectations of monolingual children, multilingual children develop language skills progressively, just as monolingual children do.2 When children do not meet developmental milestones that are typically displayed by children of the same age and learning the same language, families may be concerned.   

Here are some areas to consider more closely when there are communication concerns in multilingual children:

  • Understanding language.  Children typically understand before they produce words and phrases—they may point to objects when named or follow simple directions. When a child demonstrates strong receptive language skills, they are more likely to catch up. If there are concerns about comprehension across and/or among languages, the child may have a language delay. 
  • Using gestures.  Children often use gestures to communicate, even before they can produce words. Common gestures may include pointing, waving “hi” or “bye,” and putting their arms up to be lifted. The more gestures children use, the more likely it is that they will catch up to other children their age. Children may have language difficulties if they do not use many gestures despite consistent exposure. For both monolingual and multilingual children, if there is a prolonged reliance on gestures over speech, there may be cause for concern. 
  • Learning new words.  Although some children may be slower to talk, most children, no matter their language/s, will typically produce first words by the first year. Afterward, they should be using new words more frequently, with an average of four to six words by 15 months and 20 or more words by 18 months. Then, they start putting words together or using words to ask questions. Following this trajectory in expressive vocabulary, a delay is unlikely. However, there may be a language problem if they do not use new words often. 

Most pediatric professionals know that parents are the best sources for reporting on how a child communicates. Therefore, in collaboration with parents and families, childcare providers, teachers, physicians, and related service providers will want to be vigilant at identifying the signs of language difficulties when working with young children.  

Signs of Language Disorders 

When a child is using their language/s in ways that are intelligible and comparable to same-aged peers with similar linguistic backgrounds, there is likely no disorder. Keep in mind though, that a child with a true language disorder may have trouble with one or more of these skills, regardless of the language/s they are exposed to:  

  • Does not smile or interact with others (birth and older) 
  • Does not babble (four to six months) 
  • Makes only a few sounds or gestures, like reaching (nine to twelve months) 
  • Does not understand what others say (ten months to two years) 
  • Says only a few words (19 months to two years) 
  • Does not put words together to make sentences (19 months to three years) 
  • Speaks using words that are not easily understood by others (three to four years) 


Some children do have speech or language difficulties, and when they do, these difficulties impact all languages. If ever there are concerns about a child’s communication development, there is help available, and often, it’s free or low cost through early intervention programs.

SLPs Can Help  

Speech–language pathologists, or SLPs, help children who have language, speech sound, fluency, or voice problems. If a child exhibits one or more of the signs above, seek the support of an SLP.

Working collaboratively with families, monolingual or multilingual SLPs can investigate communication concerns, provide suggestions to support language growth, and partner with interpreters/cultural brokers so a child’s language/s are promoted and supported in service delivery.

Search the national provider database of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA), ASHA ProFind, for a certified and licensed SLP by specialty, language/s, and location.3 SLPs can provide speech–language assessment and intervention and/or refer children and their families for additional support, such as early intervention programs.  

Above all else, multilingualism does not cause speech–language disorders. Families will not confuse their children, cause or worsen speech or language problems, or slow down children’s learning by using their language/s.

Children, with and without disabilities, growing up in monolingual and multilingual environments, can learn multiple languages with strong models and opportunities for practice.
Becoming an effective communicator is a human superpower, and multilingualism is a secret weapon that supports additional language learning and communication skills, develops stronger social and familial bonds, improves problem-solving skills, and increases earning potential for children and adults.  

Links

www.asha.org/public/developmental-milestones/communication-milestones
www.asha.org/public/speech/development/learning-more-than-one-language
www.asha.org/profind

Other ASHA Resources:  


“Late Blooming or Language Problem?,” www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/late-blooming-or-language-problem
“Early Identification of Speech, Language, Swallowing, and Hearing Disorders,”
www.asha.org/public/early-identification-of-speech-language-and-hearing-disorders

Andrea N. Pluskota, CCC-SLP, is an associate director of multicultural practices, Office of Multicultural Affairs, for the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA). 

Dyslexia Legislation Only Gets Us So Far

In October, education communities across the country recognized Dyslexia Awareness Month. The National Institute of Health and Yale University found approximately one in five people face challenges with reading relating to dyslexia. Yet state and federal decision-makers often fall short, repeating the same conversations with little tangible progress to be seen.

Although dyslexia is relatively common, it continues to be incredibly challenging for these students to be identified. Dyslexic students often find themselves in classrooms lacking the essential resources they need to thrive as readers. The consequences are immeasurable.

Allowing these students to progress through the system without the tools they need to become proficient readers often results in even greater repercussions down the road. Not only do they continue to struggle academically, but due to that continued struggle day after day, these students often experience trauma in school settings, resulting in depression, anxiety, and sometimes suicidal thoughts, triggering a range of behavioral issues. What is most concerning is that this is all preventable.

The tragedy here is that most students, including those with dyslexia or other learning differences, are capable of learning how to read. Researchers estimate that 95% of students can learn to read with appropriate instruction.

The first steps are correcting our teacher prep programs at universities, continuing professional development and coaching, aligning teacher practice with science, and putting state and district systems in place to ensure success from the top down and the bottom up.When I found myself tied to this cause by advocating for my son, who was diagnosed with dyslexia in elementary school, I was heartbroken to learn that there were limited resources available for my child and other children like him. Even worse, regardless of federal laws in place to support children with additional needs, it didn’t seem to be a concern or priority within my school, my district, or my state education system. In 2018, after an exhausting search for appropriate resources to help my son learn how to read and spending thousands of dollars in private tutoring, I founded the Idaho chapter of Decoding Dyslexia (DDID)—Idaho being the last state in the country to create a chapter—to raise awareness and improve access to educational interventions and teacher training to help dyslexic students.

The truth is there are plenty of resources with proven methods to support this population of students, but they are often overlooked by our decision-makers. We cannot continue to allow failed systems to fail our children. Literacy is a civil right and key to a successful future. If you can’t read, you will struggle in all areas of school and life. There are decades of research that have studied the reading brain and how all children learn to read. We must advocate for our education systems to support evidence-based reading instruction so that all educators are equipped with the knowledge and tools to teach every student how to read; it starts early in our core classrooms.

Why Dyslexia Legislation in the US Isn’t a Cure-All

States across the country have their versions of mandates meant to support students with dyslexia, and these continue to evolve. One example in recent headlines is dyslexia screening mandates, which the majority of states now have in place. These policies require all students be screened for dyslexia, mainly in grades K–2, ideally to catch at-risk characteristics early and provide interventions immediately. We know from research that early intervention is critical to introduce effective instruction at a time when children are still developing neurological understanding of words.

Still, dyslexia screening mandates do not always stand up. According to the National Center for Improving Literacy, the term screening refers to a brief evaluation, no more than five minutes, to identify the risk of performing below a benchmark on a specified outcome. Screening results cannot be used as diagnostic tools and are merely red flags that would ideally prompt further evaluation. But there is no guarantee that students will then receive what’s most important, that is, the next steps—further evaluation and diagnostics to determine the specific areas of struggle—and even less guaranteed is the availability and promise of effective interventions.

Far fewer states have mandated intervention for students with dyslexia, and with 71% of teacher preparation programs spending less than two hours of instructional time teaching candidates to support struggling readers, this creates a gap in knowledge for both teachers and students.

States that do have proper mandates often fail to support and coach educators in the classroom on how to implement necessary instruction. Distributing resources without adequate context, continued coaching, and systems of support in place is not enough; legislation is often broad and either lacks clear direction or lacks state and/or district leaders dedicated to carrying the changes through.

As we look forward, we can assume that dyslexia legislation will continue to grow and evolve, but this will mean nothing without significant changes in how policy is being translated and implemented by states and districts. Still, there are options available to administrators, educators, and parents concerned about the progress of their struggling readers.

Bringing Educators to the Frontlines

The best way forward in dyslexia reform is prioritizing coaching for the educators working with students daily in their classrooms. The passing of state legislation is just checking a box if we don’t look at system changes and the leaders at both state and district levels who are in positions to lead this work. The following should be high priorities for districts as they navigate the process of creating a support system for struggling readers.

Invest in Teacher Preparation—Experts agree that all students, but especially those with dyslexia, benefit from structured literacy, explicit, multisensory instruction that involves phonics and decoding words.6 Until recently, this was not widely understood, which means teachers were not receiving this type of preparation in their university training—and many still aren’t.

The National Council on Teacher Quality’s 2023 report found that just 25% of teacher preparation programs cover all the core elements of scientifically based reading instruction, and another quarter don’t cover any adequately. States and districts must allocate time, money, and resources for teachers to receive this type of training when they enter the school environment so they have all the tools they need to teach all children how to read.

Create an Emphasis on Literacy—Students need exposure to literacy throughout every part of their educational years, even after the first four to five years considered early childhood education. According to the Center for Public Education, students who cannot read at grade level by third grade will face daunting hurdles in school and beyond,8 which can be made even more difficult for those students with dyslexia. Struggling readers rarely catch up with their peers academically and are four times more likely to drop out of high school, lowering their earning power as adults and overall potential. We can’t stop the emphasis on literacy after early education when the majority of dyslexic students aren’t identified until after third grade.9

Foster a Network of Support and Accountability—Create a unified culture of genuine support and mutual respect across all levels of the education system, prioritizing listening to and supporting teachers. Teachers should feel empowered rather than stifled while addressing the disconnect between administrative requirements and teacher constraints to create an environment where everyone works to ensure all students learn to read. Most importantly, there must be a system of accountability ensuring that legislation mandates are properly integrated into practice.

The landscape of dyslexia legislation in the US portrays a drawn-out, persistent struggle. It doesn’t have to be this difficult. We have decades of research telling us how the brain learns to read, passionate educators eager to meet the needs of their students, and legislation outlining state literacy requirements.

What is missing? Leadership and accountability.
It’s time we move beyond checking boxes and passing the buck to prioritize meaningful actions by our state and district leaders to ensure every student has the tools and opportunities essential to help them thrive in school, life, and work.

Links

www.dyslegia.com/state-dyslexia-laws
https://improvingliteracy.org/state-of-dyslexia
https://improvingliteracy.org/ask-an-expert/why-early-intervention-so-important-kids-dyslexia
https://improvingliteracy.org/sites/improvingliteracy2.uoregon.edu/files/whitepaper/screening-for-dyslexia.pdf
www.nctq.org/review/standard/Reading-Foundations
https://childmind.org/article/understanding-dyslexia
www.nctq.org/dmsView/Teacher_Prep_Review_Strengthening_Elementary_Reading_Instruction
https://online.mc.edu/degrees/education/med/elementary/reading-for-elementary-students
https://online.utpb.edu/about-us/articles/education/the-importance-of-early-detection-of-dyslexia

Robin Zikmund is strategic relationships manager for the Institute for Multi-Sensory Education (IMSE) and founder and president of Decoding Dyslexia Idaho.

IDRA to co-host Webinar Commemorating 50th Anniversary of Lau v. Nichols

In 1974, Lau v. Nichols established the right of non-English language speaking students to receive an equal education. IDRA founder Dr. José Cárdenas testified in the case and then assisted the Office for Civil Rights in the development of the Lau Remedies, the first guide for schools about serving non-English language speaking students. In January 2024, IDRA will honor the ruling’s anniversary, its impact for students and what it means for today.

IDRA is co-hosting a commemorative webinar via Claremont Graduate University School of Educational Studies. Celina Moreno, J.D., IDRA President & CEO, will speak alongside the Lau plaintiff lawyer, school superintendents, policy experts and academics. They will discuss the policy and practice implications of the ruling through to today.

Co-Sponsors: CABE • Californians Together • Center for Equity & Biliteracy in Education Research at San Diego State University • Center for Equity for English Learners at Loyola Marymount University • Children’s Equity Project at Arizona State University • IDRA • NABE

For more information, visit https://www.idra.org/events/lau-v-nichols-50th-anniversary/?ceid=12875764&emci=aa7c70e7-8b9b-ee11-bea1-002248223f36&emdi=d19ec331-b69d-ee11-bea1-002248223f36.

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LanguageMagazine 2023

Language Magazine