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Transcending Monolingualism

Research shows that multilingual skills correlate with higher scores on assessments (Vogel and Garcia, 2017), and studies indicate that when those results are present, there has been a conscious and systematic use of diverse linguistic resources which has become part of the curriculum and pedagogical strategies (Madiba, 2013; Garcia, 2009).

Most English learner (EL) programs at institutes of higher education teach the mechanics of English itself (Valdes, 2020), so they are geared toward multilingual students who usually have already mastered conversational English. What students need is a continuous and systematic pedagogical approach that enhances the acquisition of academic English along with the cognitive skills that they already bring to the classroom.

Vogel and Garcia (2017) explain translanguaging thus: ”rather than possessing two or more autonomous languages systems, as has been traditionally thought, bilinguals, multilinguals, and indeed, all users of language, select and deploy particular features from a unitary linguistic repertoire to make meaning and to negotiate particular communicative contexts.” For example, bilingual students use both their languages to “adapt their language practices to the particular communicative situation in which they find themselves in order to optimize communication and understanding” (Hesson, Seltzer, and Woodley, 2014). Such linguistic repertoire includes not only words, sounds, usage, or syntactic rules but also the social features associated with multimodal communication (e.g., gestures, visuals, signs, etc.). So, translanguaging design builds pedagogical strategies upon this entire set of resources (Garcia, Johnson, and Seltzer, 2017). It strategically builds pedagogical principles based on language, lived experiences, and cultural references that are part of the different modes of communication available to multilingual students in any particular situation.

Most U.S. higher education institutions are greatly influenced by monolingual ideologies and have been hesitant to fully implement multilingual practices in the curriculum. However, some institutions have allowed flexibility in the curriculum, so students and professors have engaged in better teacher–student relations that encourage them all to take risks in challenging dominant language discourses that devalue home languages. Research studies demonstrate that when higher education institutions allow the use of translanguaging pedagogy, students’ desire to learn increases with tangible results in terms of academic performance (Carrol and Mazak, 2017). Translanguaging pedagogy creates spaces where university bilingual students maximize their potential as accomplished learners.

Translanguaging refers to multiple language practices which individuals use to make sense of their multilingual worlds (Rivera and Mazak, 2017). Students translate, code switch, and translanguage to make sense of academic courses. These particular linguistic practices open new perspectives to understand the use of home languages as educational resources that enrich the learning experience of emergent bilingual students in higher education. Multilingual students bring into the classroom different ways to interact through language use, and they enhance their educational possibilities by breaking rules of traditional monolingual language practices.

Garcia (2009) suggests that bilingual students translanguage by using linguistic tools, knowledge, and features from the languages they know. This means that multilinguals go beyond linguistic borders and blend their languages to fulfill their communicative needs. Translanguaging does not see the possession of two or more languages as separate or autonomous. Rather, translanguaging see the acquisition of languages as a formation of a single linguistic system stored in the mind where bilingual speakers have the autonomous decision-making role of selecting and using language according to their communicative needs.

The dominant monolingual educational space does not promote the use of bilingual students’ language knowledge and cognitive skills. Such restriction denies the additional resources that languages other than English can offer to access and navigate in the system. In contrast, translanguaging practices stress the language-as-resource perspective. This is a recursive pedagogy that can create new educational possibilities in higher education.

In most U.S. universities today, academic language proficiency is measured by standardized testing with an English-only ideology. An educational environment that promotes linguistic diversity enables multilingual students to succeed by maximizing their full potential. Translanguaging is a well-designed use of students’ native linguistic practices to enhance understanding of academic content in English. The key idea is seeing languages other than English as educational tools that enhance the acquisition of academic content and the target language.

Although English is the most common medium of instruction in the U.S., the reality is that multilingual students in higher education navigate in academia using their languages to make sense of the school experience (Garcia, Johnson, and Seltzer, 2017). They may use different linguistic resources to tackle academic tasks such as test preparation and written or oral assignments to express their understanding of content. Translanguaging offers a new pedagogical design for multilingual students in the acquisition of knowledge, reaffirmation of their identities, and full multilingualism.

In some universities, professors are allowed to incorporate students’ native languages in teaching. Professors can use this flexibility to include translanguaging practices to provide a scaffolding approach for effective learning in science and engineering programs (Rivera and Mazak, 2017). This effective curriculum flexibility allows the use of different linguistic resources (e.g., code-switching, translation, etc.) in some assignments or tests so students can demonstrate mastery of content previously taught in English.
In one example at a Chinese university, a math professor (who spoke Mandarin only) used diverse semiotic resources to set up a translanguaging space with students who spoke Mandarin, Cantonese, Putonghua, and English by allowing the use of PowerPoint slides, math symbols, blackboards, layouts, pictures, graphic organizers, and gestures in every language to facilitate the understanding of math content (He, Lai, and Lin, 2017). Some of these resources were fully or partially displayed in different languages. It was a collaborative work where all participants engaged in co-constructing the learning experience. Mathematics is a semiotic means of communication on its own. As the authors of the study explain, math meaning-making processes are tied to symbolism (e.g., formulas, equations, etc.), visual displays (e.g., tables, graphs, etc.), and verbal/written language (e.g., textbooks and verbal explanations) (He, Lai, and Lin, 2017).

So, translanguaging pedagogy fits perfectly with teaching math to emergent multilingual students because the class turned into a space where the meaning-making process of math content was scaffolded by the addition of the students’ linguistic repertoires and multimodal resources. The tangible results were manifested by an increased desire for learning and engagement. Additionally, the dynamic of the class was changed from “teacher as deliverer” to a teacher/student co-teaching and co-learning environment.


University faculty can start implementing translanguaging in the following ways:

  • Helping multilingual students to recognize their linguistic potential
  • Allowing students to engage in co-creating knowledge with them
  • Using all available language resources (e.g., bilingual dictionaries, textbooks, online translators)
  • Experimenting with different translanguaging strategies (e.g., code-switching, translation, multimodality)

It is important to note that faculty at institutions of higher education might not be able to fully implement translanguaging pedagogy. However, when designing their lesson plans, they may find opportunities for the incorporation of translanguaging strategies appropriate for their multilingual students. Similar studies in higher education have found a direct correlation between translanguaging pedagogy and higher levels of learning and more sense of belonging, which are crucial ingredients to increase the motivation to succeed (Karlsson, Larsson, and Jakobsson, 2018; Klapwijk and Walt, 2016). The strategic use of students’ linguistic repertoires turns into a powerful resource that assists them in developing understanding of scientific knowledge and at the same time increases the likelihood of their staying motivated until the completion of their studies.

When professors allow the use of these tools and incorporate them in their daily activities, they create a translanguaging space that will transform the learning and teaching experience. The transformation will lead students to become aware of the importance of their own cultures, languages, and lived experiences. Their identities will be reaffirmed and levels of engagement will increase.

As educators, we need to encourage students to acknowledge and develop their linguistic repertoires by being aware of their potential to improve the learning experience. Using tools requires acknowledging their existence; then the strategic use will follow. Although bilingual students and professors may naturally use translanguaging, they need to be aware of its value and learn to use it effectively in their learning and teaching.

A good starting point for institutions of higher education to implement translanguaging is by inviting their faculty to learn about translanguaging and implementing a modified curriculum with translanguaging strategies, especially when they have a multilingual student population. Designing a translanguaging classroom involves the construction of a collaborative “space by the teacher and bilingual students as they use their different language practices to teach and learn in deeply creative and critical ways” (Garcia, Johnson, and Seltzer, 2017). Creating spaces to bring together faculty, administrators, and other stakeholders to discuss new ways of increasing academic achievement among multilingual students is the next step.
When multilingual students are discouraged from using their home languages, they are deprived of practices and tools that enhance their capacity for making sense of content and their experiences. These pedagogical practices take their toll on the academic performance of multilingual students. When emergent multilingual students are assessed, their full linguistic repertoires are not part of the assessment (Garcia, 2009), so their full potential remains unknown. An educational space that promotes linguistic diversity creates a unique environment to abandon the monolingual approach of education and take advantage of different linguistic resources to enhance understanding. Most professors do not have training in multicultural and multilingual education. Therefore, the academic achievement of minority students is heavily influenced by these dominant values and beliefs reflected in the teachers’ pedagogical practices and their perceptions about the students’ potential. The current research about translanguaging pedagogy in higher education shows that it can certainly be an effective tool to increase graduation rates among emergent multilingual students. Institutions of higher education can take the lead in creating and promoting a translanguaging space where it becomes an educational resource. Translanguaging pedagogy keeps students motivated during their university careers because they see the connection with their own future academic goals, lived experiences, families, cultures, and communities.

Translanguaging design goes beyond scaffolding because it creates spaces that motivate emergent bilingual students to acquire knowledge—not just vocabulary and grammar—but also to reaffirm their identities and sense of cultural belonging. The use of their entire linguistic repertoires maximizes their full potential because it encourages them to take risks. Their awareness of being emergent multilingual students does not make them feel at a disadvantage but rather gives them courage to explore new educational possibilities in academia. Translanguaging is a promising approach that needs to be explored to discover its possibilities. Institutions of higher education can move translanguaging principles up to the level of policy making by inviting willing professors to experiment with these innovative pedagogical principles.

References
Carrol, K., and Mazak, C. (2017). “Language Policy in Puerto Rico’s Higher Education: Opening the door for translanguaging practices.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 48(1).

Garcia, O., Johnson, S., and Seltzer, K. (2017). The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.

Garcia, O. (2009). “Bilingualism and Translanguaging.” Bilingual Education in the
21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Willey-Blackwell.

He, P., Lai, H., and Lin, A. (2017). “Translanguaging in a Multimodal Mathematics Presentation.” In C. Mazak and K. Carrol (eds.), Translanguaging in Higher Education: Beyond Monolingual Ideologies, 91–120. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Hesson, S., Seltzer, K., and Woodley, H. (2014). Translanguaging in Curriculum and Instruction: A CUNY-NYSIEB Guide for Educators. www.cuny-nysieb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Translanguaging-Guide-Curr-Inst-Final-December-2014.pdf

Karlsson, A., Larsson, P., and Jakobsson, A. (2018). “Multilingual Students’ Use of Translanguaging in Science Classrooms.” International Journal of Science Education, 1–21.

Klapwijk, N., and Van der Walt, C. (2016). “English-Plus Multicultural as the New Linguistic Capital? Implications of university students’ attitudes towards languages of instruction in a multilingual environment.” Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 15(2), 67–82.

Madiba, M. (2013). “Multilingual Education in South African Universities: Policies, pedagogies, and practicality.” Linguistics and Education, 24, 385–395.

Rivera, A., and Mazak, C. (2017). “Pedagogical Translanguaging in a Puerto Rican University Classroom: An exploratory case study of student beliefs and practices.” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 1–15. doi.org/10.1177/1538192717734288

Valdes, G. (2020). “Sandwiching, Polylanguaging, Translanguaging, and Codeswitching: Challenging monolingual dogma in institutionalized language teaching.” In J. McSwain and F. Christian (eds.), Codeswitching in the Classroom: Critical Perspectives on Teaching, Learning, Policy, and Ideology. New York, NY: Routledge.

Vogel, S., and Garcia, O. (2017). “Translanguaging.” In G. Noblit and L. Moll (eds.), Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Samir Monges is a doctoral student at the University of Utah. His research interests are located in the intersection among language, philosophy, and education. He is currently working on his doctoral dissertation, which focuses on translanguaging in higher education.

What Language Does Pain Speak?

A new study suggests that the language a bilingual person speaks may affect their physical sensations, including pain.

Pained, stressed young man with a tangled thoughts coming out of his head

Researchers at the University of Miami tried to discover if the ways we express feelings, such as pain, love, or joy, in various languages resulted in differences in the sensations themselves. They asked, “Would a painful event like a stubbed toe or a bee sting hurt less if a bilingual chose to describe or think about it in Spanish as opposed to English?”

The University’s Social and Cultural Neuroscience Lab uses experimental interactions among research participants to assess how social factors, like the language they speak or the cultural identity they express, can influence pain responses and other clinically relevant behaviors. The study looked at how social environments and cultural learning can be relevant to perceptions as seemingly objective and inherent as pain. 

In the study, 80 bilingual Hispanic/Latino participants visited the lab to participate in separate English and Spanish testing sessions. During both sessions, they received painful heat to their inner forearm. The primary difference between the two experimental visits was the language being spoken (English or Spanish), while the painful procedure did not change. Participants provided subjective ratings of their pain, and their physiological responses (i.e. their heart rate and sweatiness of the palms) were also monitored. 

The study was inspired by research in the field of “linguistic relativity,” which has shown differences between English and Spanish speakers in cognitive processes like memory for specific events or categorization of objects. These cognitive differences are also seen among bilingual people when they switch between English and Spanish contexts.

“All of our participants identified as bicultural,” explained Morgan Gianola, lead researcher on the study. “After each experimental session, we had them fill out surveys about things like how often they use each language [English and Spanish] and how strongly they relate to and identify with both the Hispanic and U.S.-American sides of their cultural identity. The interesting thing we found was, rather than participants always showing higher pain ratings in Spanish, for example, they tended to report more intense pain and show larger physiological responses to pain when they spoke the language of their stronger cultural identity.” 

According to the study findings, “participants who engaged more with the Hispanic culture showed higher pain when speaking Spanish, while more U.S.-American identified participants reported higher pain in English. People who were fairly balanced in their engagement with U.S.-American and Hispanic culture had pain outcomes that didn’t differ much across languages. The study also suggests that bodily responses to the pain played a larger role in determining pain ratings among more Hispanic oriented bilingual participants.”

“This study highlights, first, that Hispanic/Latino communities are not monolithic, and that the factors affecting bilinguals’ psychological and physiological responses to pain can differ across individuals,” said Gianola. “We also see that language can influence such a seemingly basic perception as pain, but that the cultural associations people carry with them may dictate to what extent the language context makes a difference.”

Moving forward, the researchers are developing new experiments to further address the role language plays in influencing cognition and perception among bilingual speakers. As part of a dissertation project, Gianola plans to investigate the brain processes that contribute to the effects found in this most recent study.

The study, “Effects of Language Context and Cultural Identity on the Pain Experience of Spanish-English Bilinguals,” is published in the journal Affective Science and will appear as part of the journal’s special issue on “Language and Affect.” 

Multinational Call to Invest in Language Education

“Clear and precise communication is more crucial than ever before to the health and security of every nation.”

For the first time in their histories, five international academies have joined together to ask for increased investment in language education, an unprecedented collaboration at a time of global uncertainty.

The Importance of Languages in Global Context: An International Call to Action is a collaboration of five institutions from nations in which English is a primary language: the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, the British Academy, the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia, The Australian Academy of the Humanities, and the Royal Society of Canada.

The statement was inspired by the ongoing work of the American and British Academies, which have issued complementary reports on language education in recent years. The American Academy took the lead on this effort as part of its rollout efforts in support of its 2017 report, America’s Languages: Investing In Language Education for the 21st Century.

“We are delighted to have played such an important role in the creation of this joint statement,” said American Academy president David Oxtoby. “Each nation understands its language capacity and needs differently, but we all agree that the ability to speak languages in addition to English will continue to be a critical skill in a shrinking world.”

The joint statement recommends that the nations represented should invest educational resources to support the diversity of languages spoken within their borders, including indigenous languages, and provide greater access to education in a range of languages, even as they strive to improve literacy in English.

To build language skills in countries where English dominates, the academies call for more language education in schools, colleges, universities, and workplaces, with three main goals:

  1. To celebrate all languages, including those spoken by minority and indigenous populations. This means protecting against discrimination on the basis of language, preserving linguistic diversity and continuing access to education across a full range of languages
  2. To acknowledge the English language’s position as a world language by enabling full access to literate English, recognizing this may be enhanced by awareness of other languages
  3. To gain greater language skills by providing every student with access to learning additional languages. This will foster literacy and educational attainment, build confidence, enhance employability, and help them to navigate multicultural environments.

The academies also made the point that students from every socioeconomic background must have equal access to language education to reach their full potential in the 21st century.

“Foreign language learning in the anglophone world has been in decline for too long – and the COVID-19 pandemic is a wake-up call. Anglophone nations need to urgently develop and implement language policies that are explicit, coordinated and comprehensive, making access to the world’s languages a core feature and indispensable part of the education of every student, of every age, beginning with valuing the language(s) learned at home…To work together, the people of the world must be able to speak to each other and be understood,” said Professor Neil Kenny FBA, the British Academy’s lead Fellow for languages.

The statement references current challenges as part of its call for increased investment: “The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified global communications—virtual meetings, streaming cultural content, international news, social media, and so on—but also risks increasing inequalities and heightening racism as well as regional tensions. To solve the problems we face, we must increase our capacity to speak with each other as part of a global community.”

The participating academies see this effort as an important declaration of principle and hope it inspires more discussion, as well as a greater emphasis on language instruction and revitalization.

“The academies have chosen to issue their first joint statement about the kind of world we would like to see and help foster,” Oxtoby said. “We are delighted that our first collaboration addresses such an important issue, and we all look forward to working together on future initiatives.”

Challenge to Spanish Causes Outcry


Last month, Spain’s eighth education law in democratic history was passed by congress while creating a storm of anger and protest. One of the most controversial aspects of the bill is the elimination of a passage stating that Castilian Spanish (Castellano) is the “vehicular language” of Spain. Right wing commentators view this as a concession to Cataluña’s “linguistic immersion” model that uses Catalan as the primary language of instruction in the autonomous region. Spain’s minority government relies on support from regional parties to pass legislation.

Gloria Lago, leader of Hablamos Español (We Speak Spanish), a pressure group that campaigns for more Spanish-language education in regions with their own minority languages, told the Financial Times, “This is an attempt to ensure that Spanish is not a language with a presence throughout the country. It makes it very difficult to move from one part of the country to another, particularly if you want your children to be taught in Spanish.”

The government maintains that the goal is for students in bilingual regions to become fluent in both Spanish and their provincial language. Even poet Luis García Montero, director of the Instituto Cervantes warns against criticizing the change, “We should be very wary of language differences being used to foster tensions and hatred, when our cultural diversity—including minority mother tongues that deserve democratic support—is part of our strength.”

However, the more conservative Real Academia Española has called for the bill not to “put in question the use of Spanish in any territory of the state or to promote obstacles to citizens being educated in their mother tongue.”

The opposition Partido Popular claimed that the legislation represented a “break with our systems of liberties and constitution” and helped to stage demonstrations across Spain against the measure, which still requires Senate approval. Supporters of the bill claim the language issue is a diversion to undermine the main purpose of the bill which is to level the playing field between public schools and privately run, often religious schools that receive public funding and educate a quarter of the nation’s students.

It was only in 2013, under a more conservative government, that the reference to Spanish as the language of instruction was introduced.

“The charge that we are trying to rid of Spanish could not be further from the truth. This law will ensure that any pupil must leave school speaking Spanish and any other language, be it Catalan, Basque, or Galician equally well,” Juan Mena, education spokesman for En Comú, a left-wing party, told VOA. “The mention of Spanish no longer being the principal language is only because previous education laws said Spanish must be the principal language even in regions where other languages are spoken.” 

Recognizing Multilingual Speech Patterns

More than 20% of children in the U.S. are bilingual, a number that continues to rise year over year (Kids Count Data Center, 2018). According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), there is a common misconception that being bilingual contributes to speech or language delays in children. However, it is important to note this is a difference, not a delay or disorder. Bilingual children may present with common speech patterns and phenomena that make it appear they are delayed or confused. Rather, these are common processes that occur when children are learning multiple languages.

Common Speech Patterns in Bilingual Children

  • According to the ASHA, some common patterns that may come up for bilingual children include:
  • “Interference or transfer errors”—errors made because the child is moving between two different languages.
  • A “silent period” during which the individual focuses on listening and comprehension of the new language. In other words, the child likely understands much more of the language than she or he can say.
  • “Code-switching”—changing languages during the course of a phrase or sentence—for example, beginning a sentence in English and finishing it in Spanish.
  • Language loss or attrition—also called “subtractive bilingualism,” where a child may lose fluency in their primary language if they don’t practice it.
  • “Accent, dialect, and phonetic patterns”—if a child is learning a language that contains sounds not present in their primary language, they may have difficulty with those sounds, which can make the sounds difficult to understand. There are many common articulation variations between English and Spanish that affect bilingual speakers (Frederick, 2005).

These patterns are typically not indicative of a speech disorder. Rather, there are aspects of bilingualism that speech therapists should be aware of when evaluating or treating a child. Parents and teachers who want to know whether a student should see a speech therapist can get guidance from the “Communication and the Bilingual Child” informational worksheet from Super Duper Publications (Vroom, 2003).

Tips for Bilingual Speech Therapy
Diagnosing and treating speech disorders for bilingual children is complex, and it has become even more complex due to the COVID-19 pandemic, because in many cases speech therapy is being done online rather than in person. There are, however, several strategies that speech therapists can use to be successful in supporting bilingual students both at home and online.


Involve and empower the parents. The most important thing that a speech therapist can do when evaluating a bilingual child—whether they are working in school, doing teletherapy, or are in private practice—is to get parents and caregivers involved. Even though they may not be bilingual themselves, parents are the most important members of the team. Speech therapists should aim to teach parents how to facilitate and encourage language strategies, so that they feel empowered and confident to use them in daily practices. Repetition and consistency are key when learning new concepts in any language. When helping their child practice language at home, parents are encouraged to talk slowly and use simple sentences, modeling words that the child will need to use often and reading books to the child (in both languages, if possible) to help the child develop vocabulary, sentence structure, and phonemic awareness (Vroom, 2003).


Encourage the strongest language to be modeled in the home. Ultimately, the goal of speech therapy is to empower the child to communicate efficiently and effectively. If parents are more confident and comfortable only with their native language, it is important to highlight strategies and skills in that language. Speech therapists can model the second language during sessions and help convey basic concepts and vocabulary. However, parents should aim to model language for their child in the language they feel most confident using. As they learn new words and concepts in the second language, they can also begin to introduce and model those during play or daily routines.


Consider the family’s culture. Sometimes concepts may be represented with a different word, depending on a family’s culture or dialect. Speech therapists should encourage and welcome families to share their culture and terminology. Speech therapists should be open to new vocabulary as well when working with families from different backgrounds.


Don’t forget about social-emotional learning. The speech therapist’s job includes connection as well as communication. It is important for speech therapists to look at the whole child to determine how they can best support them. Self-regulation and managing frustration are just as important as learning and using new concepts. Speech therapists should encourage mindfulness exercises and discussions of feelings and emotions and should practice positive affirmations. Encourage children to focus on what they can do and what skills they do have. Mental health and social-emotional learning (SEL) are important parts of speech therapy for both children and caregivers. Speech therapists should check in with families on a periodic basis to make sure their essential mental health and basic needs are being met.

Shifting to Online Speech Therapy
When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, many speech therapists moved their sessions with clients online. This brings up a host of other issues. The same general advice holds true for online speech therapy.


Parents are partners. The speech therapist should be checking in regularly with parents and should aim to involve them in sessions to empower them to carry over strategies once the session has ended.
As mentioned earlier, mental health and SEL are important parts of speech therapy. This becomes even more important during distanced learning because of the impact the pandemic has had on many families’ mental health, contributing to issues such as stress, isolation, and depression. Teachers and therapists should be aware of these concerns, as they may present as a barrier, slowing progress and producing carryover. If mental health and basic needs are not being met, it may be more difficult for parents and children to be fully present in sessions, as they are thinking of other concerns or worries.


Finally, it is important to structure the therapy session (and any homework for families) in a way that avoids making families feel like one more thing is being added to their already monstrous mental load. A great way to do this is by finding resources that are functional and simple for families to practice every day during daily routines that have already been established.

Simple, Effective Resources for Online Learning
It is important to use tools that the family can access to teach speech and language. Speech therapists should work with families to see what resources they ALREADY have and then teach them how to modify those resources to support speech and language development.


There are also many worksheets available through Teachers Pay Teachers websites, Super Duper Publications, and Boom Learning.


Embracing Bilingualism
The bottom line is that while bilingualism can make diagnosing potential speech issues more complex, it is an amazing experience for the child and one that will benefit them for life. Embrace it! The U.S. Department of Education notes the many benefits of being bilingual, including cognitive development, social-emotional development, school readiness, and long-term success. Bilingualism should be encouraged, and with the right resources, teachers and speech therapists can empower parents with the skills they need to succeed.

References
Kids Count Data Center (2018). “The Number of Bilingual Kids in America Continues to Rise.” Annie E. Casey Foundation. https://datacenter.kidscount.org/updates/show/184-the-number-of-bilingual-kids-in-america-continues-to-rise#st%20decade
American Speech and Hearing Association (2020). “Bilingual Service Delivery.” www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589935225&section=Overview
Frederick, M. (2004). “Common Articulation Variations Between English and Spanish.” Super Duper® Handy Handouts™ Number 82. www.superduperinc.com/handouts/pdf/82_commonArticulation.pdf
Vroom, J. (2003). “Communication and the Bilingual Child.” Super Duper® Handy Handouts™ Number 58. www.superduperinc.com/handouts/pdf/58_Communication_and_Bilingual.pdf
U.S. Department of Education. “Talk, Read and Sing Together Every Day!” www2.ed.gov/documents/early-learning/talk-read-sing/bilingual-en.pdf
Super Duper Publications. www.superduperinc.com

Rachel Musial, MA, CCC-SLP is a bilingual pediatric speech-language pathologist in the Denver area. She has provided speech therapy in homes, in schools, and online with a focus on language, mindfulness, mental health, and play. Rachel provides guidance and resources for teachers, therapists, and parents through her Instagram (@speechwithrach), website (www.speechwithrach.com), and podcast (https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/speech-with-rach/id1534168646). Rachel also leads courses and seminars that empower SLPs to be confident and knowledgeable models of communication.

Elite Language Students Focus on Community Service

Even during these challenging times, language students contribute to the greater good. I recently attended (via Zoom, of course) the award ceremony of the Sociedad Honoraria Hispáncia (SHH). The SHH is the nationally recognized honor society for Spanish and Portuguese high school students. It is part of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese (AATSP). The honor society challenges outstanding secondary students to do more than celebrate their superior grades with somber ceremonies. The SHH encourages students to combine academic prowess, community service, and their passion for language learning. The result is unparalleled student engagement that focuses on improving the lives of others. With nearly 3,000 active chapters, the SHH is led by arguably the most talented and dedicated Spanish and Portuguese teachers worldwide. In 2019, there were over 70,000 students in SHH chapters.

The SHH supports the community through fundraisers, literacy projects, and more. During the COVID-19 shutdown in March 2020, the SHH students of the Weber School in Atlanta, GA, pivoted from a live Fun Run to a virtual event. The fundraiser supported a local nonprofit called Los Niños Primero that provides free preschool for underserved Latino children. Spanish teacher Olivia Rocamora and the students of the Los Filosefarditos chapter worked to host the Amigos Virtual Fun Run. Spanish students raised nearly $10,000. Rocamora explained that during a typical year, the SHH students designate the funds to a classroom improvement project. This year, the students elected to help pay the rent of families whom the nonprofit serves because 80% of them lost their jobs due to the pandemic.

Spanish teacher Alondra Pacheco, sponsor of the Aura chapter at University School in Hunting Valley, OH, speaks proudly of her students. They found a solution to serve the community despite public health restrictions and recorded themselves reading books in Spanish for Spanish-speaking children to listen to during the pandemic. Prior to COVID-19, the students taught Spanish to a group of senior citizens at the local library. They also participated in a meal program that served mostly Latinos at a local Ronald McDonald House.

Before social distancing was the norm, Spanish teacher Lila Casillas engaged her students in several community service projects. Casillas is the sponsor of the Dr. Juliet V. García chapter at Brownsville Early College High School in Brownsville, TX. The Spanish students raised $3,000 to protect the turtles on South Padre Island and participated in beach cleanup. The honor society students also prepared meals in an underserved, mostly Latino community where they had the opportunity to speak Spanish while assisting others.

Early in 2020, other efforts to serve the community included SHH students and Spanish teachers T. J. Troche and Cassandra Johnston, sponsors of the Gabriel García Márquez chapter at Las Vegas Academy of the Arts in Las Vegas, NV. Working with the Refugee Health Alliance, students put together boxes of medical and hygiene supplies for refugees in need on the southern border of the U.S.

Among Spanish teachers, it is not usual to see queries on Facebook like the one from Spanish teacher Amanda Sue DeSimone, sponsor of the Águilas de la Mancha chapter at V. R. Eaton High School, Fort Worth, TX. She wrote: “How are you doing community service hours in your honor society?” Several Spanish teachers answered by stating that their students are providing virtual tutoring sessions organized by advanced Spanish students for younger learners at a nearby school. AATSP president-elect Maritza Sloan, sponsor of the Los Carneros de Ladue chapter at Ladue Horton Watkins High School, St. Louis, MO, posted that her students are tutoring children from villages in rural areas in Costa Rica via Zoom.

Honor societies such as the SHH are incubators for high-achieving language students to excel in real-world contexts. While many SHH projects are short lived, community service encourages students to go on to consider problems and solutions on a larger scale. Such experiences help build leadership and language skills. SHH students demonstrate how to apply concepts beyond the traditional language classroom with the guidance of outstanding teachers. Tenacity and the creative spirit of the SHH chapters continue to serve others even during the global pandemic. These efforts underscore the unique relationship of language learners and communities. The SHH students and teacher-sponsors truly embody the AATSP motto: ¡Todos a una! ¡Todos por um! All for one and one for all!

Sheri Spaine Long, AATSP Executive Director

To learn more about the SHH, go to www.aatspshh.org/ or contact SHH director Kelly Scheetz at [email protected].

Questions to Ask Ourselves


Educators, WE Can’t Wait for the U.S. to Change!
The global coronavirus pandemic took education systems by surprise, exacerbating the educational and economic inequities that have existed for centuries and continue to be overshadowed by what educators, sociologists, psychologists, and researchers call gaps (the “wealth gap,” the “achievement gap,” the “opportunity gap,” the “language gap,” the “gender gap,” and more), only to be addressed by surface-level conversations with individuals who hold the positional power to make effective changes but remain too distant from the issues of systemic racism to enforce the meaningful change that our children need to thrive. Educators, we can’t wait for the U.S. to change.

Existing definitions for gaps led me to consider a “COVID gap” that would be an umbrella term to describe other inequities that were exacerbated during or because of the pandemic. My role is to help individuals reduce the extended gaps. I can’t wait for change in the U.S.

If the global pandemic has done us any favors, it has caused an unavoidable disarray that had to be addressed by every citizen, bringing the questions raised by Cooper (2020) at the start of the “Pass the Mic” series to the forefront: “As educators, how do we make sense of the inhumanity? How can we teach lessons about equity and justice for all when the actions of society are in stark contrast to these ideals? How are we best preparing ourselves to model healthy citizenry for future generations?”

In order to answer this last question, we need to identify our priorities and clarify our identities. What is your first priority today? Are you a parent first? Are you a significant other or spouse first? Are you a teacher or organizational leader first? Are you Black first? Is your sexuality sometimes prioritized over your race? Or maybe your religion is top of mind for you today. The most prioritized role we play in society and in our personal lives is fluid, and we, as citizens, respond.

Sam Cooke’s classic 1964 single “A Change Is Gonna Come” was recently mentioned in the InsideHook article “25 Songs about Racism That Are Still Sadly Relevant Today.” In the hit single, Sam Cooke exemplifies the necessity of educator persistence and the detriment of the lack thereof. “It’s been a long, a long time comin’, but I know a change gon’ come.” These lyrics both inspired and motivated me to question when change will come. Why not now?

Change through Professional Learning
After unpacking the emotions provoked by the music of Sam Cooke, Tupac Shakur, and Kendrick Lamar, among others, I began to develop a program titled Power of Words. Soon after designing the program, I facilitated sessions at two charter schools in the New York City metropolitan area. While the participants walked away with multiple lessons, there were a few reflections that trickled into dialogue weeks after the session and that I believe will resonate with Language Magazine readers today. The key takeaways include:

1. The need for more emotional wellness: One critical component of trust and community building among colleagues, parents, and students is taking a moment to pause. Take an emotional or wellness break where students can share what’s on their minds anonymously.

2. Motivation to act now: Educators walk away from the program feeling triggered in ways that lead to change. They are unable to avoid the impacts of their learning and can no longer understand, hear, or participate in oppressive behaviors or ideologies without being deeply impacted.

3. Language lingers: Language is a central part of culture. Language contributes to the ways in which individuals live, survive, and lead. Language can be persistent in spirit-murdering for adults and youth alike.

If educators, parents, and youth continue to utilize and build on the foundational skills developed during the pinnacle moments of the COVID-19 pandemic, change will come, and it starts with care. “Tupac cares, if don’t nobody else care.” The care presented in Tupac Shakur’s song “Keep Ya Head Up” is also described as a “homeplace” for Black people.

Who Cares If Not You?
In 1990, Bell Hooks, a professor and social activist, coined the term homeplace, which she describes as a space for resistance (hooks, 1990):

Historically, African-American people believed that the construction of a homeplace, however fragile and tenuous (the slave hut, the wooden shack), had a radical political dimension… one’s homeplace was the one site where one could freely confront the issue of humanization, where one could resist. Black women resisted by making homes where all black people could strive to be subjects, not objects, where we could be affirmed in our minds and hearts despite poverty, hardship, and deprivation, where we could restore to ourselves the dignity denied us on the outside in the public world.

I would argue that today, a homeplace is also a space of companionship. A place where compassion thrives, equity and anti-racism discussions are being had, and structures and policies are being reimagined. Individuals in this space trust each other enough to share openly and honestly, even without professionalism, without the fear of being shamed, ridiculed, or oppressed in any way.

A school-system homeplace is a space where educators, parents or guardians, and students come to learn, discuss, and implement. The homeplace in 2020 is inclusive, resists spirit-murdering (Williams, 1987), and is where each individual’s unique and diverse cultural experiences are valued, appreciated, and incorporated into curriculum and dialogue. I would argue that without a homeplace, you risk the physical safety of the body and the conceptual murdering of spirits.

In order to consider the power of language, we have to make a conscious and intentional decision to create a homeplace that eradicates White supremacy in classrooms (in person or virtual), homes, and communities. To begin our journey, let’s acknowledge a few lesser-known facts about the assimilation of the cultures of people of color over the centuries:

• 1879: The Carlisle Indian Industrial School was founded as the first federally funded Indian boarding school. The school’s main goal was to “civilize” Indigenous children by removing them from their homes so they could adapt to White society.

• 1906: Chinese, Korean, and Japanese students were in segregated schools. At this time, everyone was in a segregated school learning from educators who looked like them and understood their cultures and learning styles and spoke the same languages.

• 1936: Thurgood Marshall became the NAACP’s chief legal counsel with the goal of allocating resources for Black schools. Later, Marshall became key in the fight against racial segregation.

• 1954: Brown v. Board of Education decided that segregated schools were unlawful. The first group desegregated, in Little Rock, Arkansas, became known as the Little Rock Nine. Leading up to the Little Rock Nine’s first few weeks of school, they were attacked, threatened, spat on, and more for attending a formerly all-White school.

• After the desegregation of schools, at least 15,000 Black educators lost their jobs. Once public officials pressured local leaders to develop desegregation plans, the plans included closing many Black schools, firing Black teachers, and demoting Black principals.

Why am I choosing to share this information with you now? Well, if you were to engage in role play with a friend or colleague, what type of messaging would you imagine being used based on the assimilation of cultures during the moments of history shared? What is the language you would imagine being used? How might your confidence and engagement in your culture (language, religion, traditions, etc.) shift? How might your spirit be murdered and what might be the lasting effects?

To answer Cooper’s question, as educators, this is how we make sense of humanity.

My Language Matters
In 2015, the same year that Alton Sterling, Philando Castile, and Sandra Bland, all unarmed Black people, were killed at the hands of White police officers and/or in police custody, Kendrick Lamar wrote the song “Momma.” “He looked at me and said, Kendrick, you do know my language, you just forgot because of what public schools had painted.” In what ways are you contributing or have you contributed to the loss of culture or spirit-murdering stemming from miscommunication?

In July 1979, James Baldwin wrote about language, “It reveals the private identity, and connects one with, or divorces one from, the larger, public, or communal identity.” The ability to understand and connect through language is a diversity skill and should be acknowledged as such. We are all language learners who share our cultures, ideas, and creativity with one another through dialects, accents, and choice of words. How will your students reach liberation without learning about the history of resistance, family, and the traditions of prayer and music?

How do you expect your students to become anti-racist without unpacking, understanding, and having compassion for the racial history across this nation? How will you prevent spirit-murdering without increasing your self-awareness and centering impact over intent in every instance, including language?

These questions are catalysts to begin developing an equity lens that promotes the normalization of interpersonal interrogation, to begin closing educational, cultural, and societal gaps through word choices, empathy, and identity awareness. The thought-provoking questions in this article and moments in history will be helpful in starting or continuing your journey toward equity. Educators, we need to use our linguistic knowledge and harness the power of language to build a homeplace for our students. Our work starts now. Why not?

References
hooks, b. (1990) Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics. Boston, MA: South End Press.

Cooper, A. (July 2020) “Dismantling Racism: Working from the Inside Out.” Language Magazine.

Love, B. (2019) We Want to Do More Than Survive: Abolitionist Teaching and the Pursuit of Educational Freedom. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Fultz, M. (2004). “The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown: An overview and analysis.” History of Education Quarterly, 44, 11–45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3218109

Jolisa Beavers is the founder of 4ward Inclusion Consulting, Inc., a not-for-profit organization offering culturally aware and anti-oppressive programs for educators, parents, youth, and community organizations.

Beavers has facilitated at education and social justice conferences across the country and continues to advocate for the human rights of the oppressed, primarily youth and families of color.

ASL Interpreter Signs at White House Briefing for First Time

Many deaf and hard of hearing Americans have noticed an absence of American Sign Language interpreters at the White House’s regular COVID-19 press briefings throughout the coronavirus pandemic—that won’t be the case any longer, though.

On November 13, an ASL interpreter signed at one of the White House’s COVID briefings for the first time ever, according to ABC 7. This comes on the heels of a federal lawsuit between the National Association of the Deaf (NAD) and the White House, in which the NAD claimed the White House was excluding deaf people from easily accessing critical information about the pandemic by not providing ASL interpretation at the briefings. The NAD won the lawsuit at the end of September, and the White House must now provide interpretation at all public COVID briefings.

“There was an information gap for many of us in the deaf and hard of hearing community,” Howard Rosenblum, CEO of the NAD, told ABC 7. “We weren’t getting information, the captions were not enough for many members of the community.”

Although all 50 states have had ASL interpreters for their governors’ public COVID briefings, the White House had not provided one throughout the duration of the pandemic, instead relying on closed captioning. According to a statement, a previous request for an ASL interpreter was refused.

Many members of the deaf and hard of hearing community find ASL interpretation preferable to closed captioning because ASL is their native language. On the other hand, people born deaf or hard of hearing must learn to read English as a second language—ASL and English are distinct languages and as such, have vastly different syntax and morphology.

ASL isn’t always preferable to closed captioning. Many people who lose hearing later in life are more comfortable with English than ASL, and as such, interpretation can’t entirely replace closed captioning. However, because live captioning is not always entirely accurate, interpretation can be especially useful for time-sensitive information, as it helps to minimize the risk of misunderstandings.

In a statement following the judge’s decision, Rosenblum noted that the NAD’s success sets a precedent, marking the first time a U.S. President has provided ASL interpretation at any press briefing.

How COVID-19 is Reshaping Translation & Interpretation

COVID-19 has changed the world irrevocably, forcing the translation and interpretation industry to rapidly adopt digital technology and tools to reduce the disruption of day-to-day operations. 

Since early March, multinational corporations and international associations have had to turn global, face-to-face events into online video conferences.

While frontline workers are undoubtedly the heroes of this crisis, interpreters have been essential to the smooth running of operations in many industries—from court hearings and medical appointments to government conferences and assisted learning.

However, there has been a significant strain on interpreters suddenly having to adapt to new remote and home working conditions—a situation which looks set to be the new normal.

Who has been the worst hit?

Though many translators are no strangers to working from home with the aid of glossaries and style guides, it’s the interpreters who work face-to-face who have been the worst hit. 

In a recent study by CSA Research, 55% of language service providers report a decrease in business since the outbreak of the pandemic and show great concern about the uncertainty of how long the pandemic will last. They have less confidence in a quick return to business normalcy that they expected in May.

Many have had to move their services to online platforms, with varying degrees of success. In an interview on the state of the language industry in early March 2020, German translator, Alexander Gansmeier, explained: “March, usually conference ‘high season,’ has been swept by a wave of cancellations. The worse the global situation gets (and country governments react accordingly), the more clients rely on the force majeure argument to try to avoid any cancellation fees”

The coronavirus had a significant impact on translators’ source of income, but smaller companies that provide on-site interpretation have also felt the pressure.

As an increasing number of events were cancelled, more clients cited force majeure (unforeseeable circumstances that prevent the fulfilment of a contract) as a means to avoid paying. This depletion of income is further compounded by a lack of infrastructure to allow for complete remote working.

Additionally, interpreters have been challenged to enter unchartered territory by working from home instead of a fixed booth installation.

“We unexpectedly found ourselves in our apartments wondering how to continue performing our duties and contribute to multilingualism,” said Veronique Vandegans, head of the French Interpretation Section at the United Nations. “However, it quickly became apparent that we could adapt and interpret remotely, given the proper equipment, testing and training.”

Unfortunately, most language service providers have—until now—been operating traditionally and have thus struggled to take operations online during the pandemic.

That said, the rapid adoption of digital transformation caused by COVID-19 has proven to be a boon for many tech-savvy companies.

Who is thriving during the pandemic?

While Language Service Providers (LSPs) registered a decrease in demand for their services from sectors such as events or travel and leisure, certain verticals seem to have seen a surge in demand.

According to the CSA survey, 64% of LSPs report an increase in demand for interpretation in the health sector, with 59% reporting a higher demand from the life sciences, medical, and pharmaceuticals sector.

The change in demand for interpretation services appears to vary highly between sectors. Companies that already provide remote or virtual interpretation services are thriving as businesses look for ways to maintain communication with staff, prospects, peers, and the general public.

Video conferencing platform Zoom is a prime example of this—its stock has tripled in value over the last few months as remote working and video conferences become the norm.

To return to a semblance of normality, some LSPs are actively encouraging more of their employees to work from home, using videoconferencing and online interpretation platforms to do so.

In our new normal, this is the way of the future, and an inevitable progression that has been hastened by the COVID-19 pandemic. With many companies having already extended their home office policy until late 2021 and reinforcing a strict no travel policy, the majority of events are most likely to continue in virtual and hybrid scenarios in the near future.

What does the future look like? 

The key requirements for any LSP to succeed in our new normal are resilience and adaptability. LSPs that can provide interpretation services via online platforms are already in a much better position than those that typically work offline. That’s not to say that offline LSPs are fighting a losing battle—in fact, it’s likely that many of these interpreters are already upskilling and familiarising themselves with online platforms so that they too can offer their services wherever, whenever.

For interpreters, this has resulted in a greater emphasis on online platforms, with hybrid options becoming more commonplace as lockdown eases in some countries. As markets reopen, there will be a greater focus on tools that streamline and improve the experience in the future.

The shift to remote participation has opened up new needs for inclusivity and audience engagement, as event organizers are tackling “zoom fatigue”. Allowing participants to join the conversation in their native language and offering the audience an accurate translation of speakers’ inputs, fosters engagement, inclusivity, and ultimately raises the likelihood of the event’s success.

Remote interpretation and participation may well lead to an increase in demand for interpretation services in the long run, because they are more attainable, affordable, and easier to arrange, especially for smaller organizations.

At Australia’s Royal Melbourne Hospital for example, video interpreting appointments have increased from 10–15 appointments per month (before COVID-19) to 100–200 a month currently.

Pioneering a positive way forward post-pandemic

While COVID-19 won’t be around forever, it will have a lasting effect on how interpreters operate in the future.

For interpreting services to evolve and demonstrate value, translation and interpretation expertise, organisations and professionals need to be resilient, flexible, and able to meet the demands of today’s digital-first world.

There can be no disputing that online interpretation for events, conferences, seminars, and press meetings is the way of the future. Luckily, the tools to facilitate this paradigm shift are already available.

Kim Ludvigsen is CEO of Interprefy.

Interactive virtual event for language learners Dec. 2-3

Language learners, educators, businesses, and language content and service providers are invited to attend Global C.R.E.D. (Credentialing and Recognizing Excellence and Determination) a free virtual event with a combination of recorded and live presentations that will be live-streamed December 2-3 for interactive and on-demand access.

Global C.R.E.D. brings to life the Global Seal of Biliteracy’s mission of fostering a learner-to-user pipeline where participants can learn a language, earn credentials, and find academic and career opportunities to use their bilingual skills.

“We are thrilled to launch this interactive event experience to connect language learners with educators, learning and testing organizations, and companies that can provide career opportunities.” said Linda Egnatz, Global Seal of Biliteracy Executive Director.

The virtual event aims to bring together language learners from around the globe who want to grow and use their language skills. To heighten the experience, the event will host five major event pathways that focus on language learners; how to support and engage them, how to help them level up to reach a Seal of Biliteracy and how to help them connect with opportunities to use their language skills in the future.

Language learners have access to keynote presentations, informative sessions, panels and round table discussions and a 2-Day “Global C.R.E.D. Learner Experience.”

The event will host interactive sessions and engaging activities that focus on language learning. The tracks will include a variety of activities for language learners to explore independently including a College and Career Fair and informative sessions about language learning and the Seals of Biliteracy.

For more information, visit www.theglobalseal.com/cred.

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