Literacy is foundational—not only for academic success but as a fundamental skill for navigating life. Yet literacy rates in the US paint a troubling picture: about 21% of adults are illiterate, and 54% read below a sixth-grade level, with 45 million Americans considered functionally illiterate. This urgent reality calls for evidence-based literacy practices, like explicit foundational skills and vocabulary instruction, developing background-knowledge comprehension strategies, and effective spoken language teaching for multilingual learners (MLs).
It Starts with Language
Yes, our brains are wired for language. From birth, exposure to language, combined with caregivers’ intentional interactions—like repeating words, allowing practice through babbling, and providing affirming and corrective feedback—builds a foundation for language development. While our brains are wired for language, learning requires explicit instruction (Arrendondo and Cárdenas-Hagan, 2021).
Without explicit teaching, we won’t be able to learn to speak. Sometimes it’s confusing when we hear that learning to speak is natural. It seems like instruction is not required. It is. We have to be taught the language we are meant to learn.
For educators, this means that simply exposing students to a new language isn’t enough. This is true for monolinguals. And this is true for multilingual learners. Language acquisition demands effective, intentional teaching. Sequential bilinguals, those who learn a second language five or more years after their first, benefit from mapping their new language onto existing knowledge of their first.
Many monolingual and bilingual advocates have long held beliefs that a first language must be fully mastered before one learns a second. Contrary to this belief, research now shows that bilingual learners can simultaneously develop speaking, reading, and writing skills in two languages (Bialystok, 2011).
Even infants as young as six months old can distinguish between languages, demonstrating the brain’s remarkable capacity for multilingualism (Kuhl, 2011). This supports the case for early and concurrent instruction in multiple languages through programs like dual immersion, where language acquisition is intentional and explicit.
Oral Language Is the Foundation
Oral language must be actively taught, practiced, and used daily. Immersion in a language environment alone is insufficient. Structured opportunities for speaking build the foundation for oral comprehension. Understanding language—how to speak it, how to use it, what words mean, how to put those words into an order that makes sense—is essential to both decoding and reading comprehension. Learners must have time to connect sounds and spellings to words and meanings. These spoken-language practices have a direct, positive impact on reading instruction.
Explicitly teaching oral language and text-based skills within the same lesson is critical. For example, a lesson might include time for speaking practice, either practicing new sentence structures or about academic content, followed by introducing text that connects to those spoken words. Knowing what the cognitive task is—sentence structures, vocabulary, or overall content—will help keep the lesson and affirming feedback focused. This integration ensures that students strengthen both their oracy and decoding skills simultaneously, building a robust foundation for literacy.
Mapping Language onto Text
Our spoken language has a written counterpart: text. Through explicit teaching, learners can connect sounds to letters and see how spoken words materialize on the page. This spoken-language mapping to text applies to any language with an orthography and is fundamental for all learners (Ehri, 2005; Scarborough, 2001).
We can learn about text and how it maps to spoken language while also learning to speak the language. Think about a baby: we can expose babies to books long before they know how to read. We don’t have to wait until they speak the language before we start teaching them about text mapping. No matter when it starts, teaching about text mapping has to be explicit.
Learning about sounds and letters and how they make up words can’t be skipped. This part, sometimes called foundational skills, which include decoding, is an essential part of learning to read. However, these are a set of finite skills that, once learned, don’t have to be belabored. It’s like learning the skill of addition in mathematics. Once you learn the concept and the rules, you can apply that skill to any numbers that you wish to add. The same is true for decoding. Once you understand the rules, you can apply the skills to any word.
More importantly, the more practice one has with reading, the faster and easier it becomes. In fact, our brains will store words in our long-term memories once we become familiar with them, so that they are read automatically (Ehri, 2005). However, whenever we encounter an unfamiliar word, we can rely on our decoding skills to help us read it.
Think of a medical text and names of medicines. There are likely words that are unfamiliar that even as adults we will have to “sound out.” The skill of decoding stays with us even as we become more and more fluent in our reading. Without this skill, it would be nearly impossible for us to comprehend or read the words on the page.
Comprehension, of Course
Language comprehension requires understanding meanings of words and sentences, registers, and the nuances within languages. This happens during spoken exchanges and can be mapped when reading. Here’s the thing: comprehension of spoken language is essential to comprehension of written language. And we have to remember that we can’t comprehend anything we can’t decode. We have to be able to decode before we can comprehend the words in written form. Therefore, we can’t have one without the other. We need effective instruction that is explicit in teaching how to decode, comprehend, and use language for various purposes (Hammond, 2015; Goldenberg, 2008).
Reading comprehension, the ability to derive meaning from text, is the goal of effective literacy instruction. To comprehend, learners must first decode, but decoding alone isn’t enough.
Successfully developing reading comprehension involves helping students understand nuances, register, and meaning within both spoken and written language.
Comprehension isn’t just an academic skill—it’s the heart of communication. It enables us to connect with others, share ideas, and build relationships. Teaching students to use language effectively and to decode and comprehend text equips them with the tools for lifelong learning and engagement.
Structured Literacy and Multilingualism: A Pathway to Educational Success
Structured literacy and multilingualism are not just compatible; they are powerful allies in fostering academic success and lifelong learning. Together, they unlock the full potential of learners, enabling them to navigate and excel in a world increasingly defined by linguistic and cultural diversity. Grounded in evidence-based practices, structured literacy provides a robust foundation for reading, writing, and comprehension, while multilingualism enriches cognitive flexibility, cultural awareness, and academic achievement. These approaches, when intertwined, create a transformative pathway for students to thrive in a multilingual society.
Structured Literacy as a Foundation for Multilingualism
Scarborough’s Reading Rope (2001) vividly illustrates the interconnected components of literacy: oral language, decoding, and comprehension. These elements form a sturdy braid that supports reading proficiency. Structured literacy, with its focus on word recognition, comprehension, and explicit instruction, provides the essential threads for this rope. But what makes structured literacy truly transformative is its adaptability—because of its grounding in the domains of language, it works across languages, making it a critical tool for MLs.
MLs often draw on their first language as a cognitive scaffold to learn additional languages. This process, known as cross-linguistic transfer, allows students to apply what they know about phonemes, syntax, and vocabulary in one language to others (Bialystok, 2011). Structured literacy supports this transfer by providing clear, explicit instruction in foundational skills and language comprehension, enabling learners to map sounds to text and to learn academic vocabulary and complex sentence structures that support them in building fluency in multiple languages simultaneously.
Consider a classroom where a student is learning both Spanish and English. Structured literacy ensures that the student learns to decode words like gato and cat using similar phonics rules. This approach not only strengthens their reading abilities in both languages but also reinforces their confidence and motivation, key drivers of academic success.
In addition, the focus on comprehension in structured literacy, how words and sentences work, ensures that students will be able not only to decode words but to experience the meaning of the text via comprehension. The reading rope doesn’t just give us insight into reading but also into language learning. The same components in the word recognition and comprehension strands are applicable to both written text and spoken language.
Multilingualism Enhances Cognitive and Academic Growth
Bilingualism is more than just an asset; it is a cognitive superpower. Research shows that bilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced executive functioning, problem-solving skills, and mental flexibility (Kuhl, 2011). These benefits are particularly pronounced in educational settings, where multilingual students use their diverse linguistic backgrounds to approach problems from multiple
perspectives.
MLs also bring a wealth of cultural knowledge and experiences to the classroom, enriching the learning environment for all students. Dual immersion programs, which integrate instruction in two languages, exemplify how leveraging multilingualism fosters inclusivity, equity, and excellence.
These programs demonstrate that students can achieve proficiency both in their home languages and in a second language without sacrificing academic achievement. In fact, studies show that students in dual immersion programs often outperform their monolingual peers in both languages.
Structured literacy enhances these benefits by providing a systematic approach to developing language skills. When educators explicitly teach the rules and structures of language, students gain the tools to decode, comprehend, and engage with text
across languages.
This dual focus on structured literacy and multilingualism prepares students not only for academic success but also for active participation in a globalized society.
A New Era of Multilingual Education
The US stands at a pivotal moment in education. With over 40 states adopting science-of-reading legislation, there is a growing commitment to evidence-based practices that support all learners, including the 11% of students identified as MLs nationally (Swain and Long, 2023). This legislative shift represents a unique opportunity to embrace a multilingual vision for the US, one that values linguistic diversity as a strength rather than perceiving it as a barrier.
Structured literacy and multilingualism are central to this vision. Programs like dual immersion demonstrate the potential to create multilingual societies where all students have access to high-quality education. These programs show that it is not only possible but advantageous to teach students to read, write, and think in multiple languages simultaneously. Neuroscience supports this approach, revealing that the human brain is wired for multilingualism, capable of distinguishing between and learning multiple languages from an early age (Kuhl, 2011).
The Role of Structured Literacy in a Multilingual Society
To fully realize the promise of multilingual education, structured literacy must be a cornerstone of instructional practice for language and literacy development. This means providing explicit, systematic instruction in both foundational reading skills and language comprehension while leveraging the linguistic assets students bring to the classroom. It also means recognizing that decoding, comprehension, and oral language development are not separate processes but interconnected components of literacy that transcend language boundaries.
For educators, this requires a shift in mindset and practice. Educators must move away from outdated notions that students need to master one language before learning another. Instead, we must embrace a simultaneous approach, where students develop skills both in their heritage languages and in the language of instruction. Structured literacy provides the framework for this approach, ensuring that all students, regardless of their linguistic backgrounds, have the tools they need to succeed.
A Vision for Multilingualism in the US
The US has the potential to become a world leader in multilingual education. By aligning structured literacy practices with programs that promote bilingualism and biliteracy, we can create an education system that values and builds on the strengths of all learners. Dual immersion programs, paired with science-of-reading principles, can serve as models for this transformation, demonstrating how to nurture linguistic diversity while achieving high academic standards.
Imagine a future where every child in America has the opportunity to become bilingual or even multilingual, where literacy instruction is evidence-based and inclusive, and where linguistic diversity is celebrated as a national strength. This is not just an aspirational vision—it is an achievable reality. By investing in structured literacy and multilingual education, we can prepare students to thrive in a world where communication, collaboration, and cultural understanding are more important than ever.
References
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Bialystok, E. (2011). “Reshaping the Mind: The benefits of bilingualism.” Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 229–235.
Cárdenas Hagan, E. (2020). Literacy Foundations for English Learners: A Comprehensive Guide to Evidence-Based Instruction. Brookes Publishing.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). “Learning to Read Words: Theory, findings, and issues.” Scientific Studies of Reading.
Goldenberg, C. (2008). “Teaching English Language Learners: What the research does—and does not—say.” American Educator.
Goldenberg, C., and Coleman, R. (2010). Promoting Academic Achievement among English Learners: A Guide to the Research. Corwin.
Hammond, Z. (2015). Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain: Promoting Authentic Engagement and Rigor among Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. Corwin.
Kuhl, P. K. (2011). “Early Language Learning and the Social Brain.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Supplement 3), 13516–13521.
Long, M. H. (1996). “The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition.” Handbook of Second Language Acquisition.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2020). “Adult Literacy in the United States.” US Department of Education.
Rogers, J., and Gutiérrez, M. (2023). “Explicit Instruction and the Science of Reading for Multilingual Learners.” International Journal of Multilingual Education.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). “Connecting Early Language and Literacy to Later Reading (Dis)Abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice.” Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Vol. 1.
Swain, M., and Lapkin, S. (1995). “Problems in Output and the Cognitive Processes They Generate: A step towards second language learning.” Applied Linguistics.
Maya Valencia Goodall is co-creator OL&LA chief strategy officer | CORE
